


4 O 



* 



"°o 















4 o 



.0 . s * * ' O- 



<y- o « 












-7 




^o 









••, -^ °"° <y - • 
■ ° ^ ■ •^- •^* y^i^<. >. 




\/.i^^:,X,^,^^ 




^^\ - 





















^^'\ 



\^-i^ :'^ 






c,'^ ^**^l^'«^ 



^: 



^^9^ o^''^\ ^>^^ / ^c^ "-^^^ cP """^ '^*^^-' / ^- 






\ 



-^ 






',..S-CS,v * 



,-^ 



V 



^^ 



^0 ^'""^ 



.-J.^ 



-:* 




.0* 




>°v 




.0' 



^^^^ '^ 













^^-^^^ 








.0^ o " " " - 















s* A 













'^' 



s* A 



"hy 















■'^^, 







% ^ 



' .^' 







. ^ -^./7-/V^ 














'k. -"."' ,«^ 








^' 



*^ .* .'^WaV ^■^,_^_/ /^fe', *^_^* ,.^|f^», V.^* •*^^^'- ^■ 



: ^v-^-^ 




./.%• 



...' A 









L*^ .. 











.s-'"'^ 




V^ *- 5 „ O ^ ^^ 




^. .-^^ s^^ 



^>^^ 



^"'^^. 



.-^•^ .' 



>^ 



^ v" 



^'^'M/. 



w ^^o^ 






Public Works Inspection 



RULES, REGULATIONS and 
CIVIL SERVICE CATHECISM 



BY 



William Goldsmith, Assoc. M. Am. Soc; C. E. 

Former U. S. District Engineer (Philippine Service). 
Former Asst. Engineer N. T. C. Bpard of Water Supply. 




COPYRIGHTED BY 

WM. GOLDSMITH 
1914 






iCi.A361551 



.^" 



Pref 



reiace. 



In order to satisfy the demand of many candidates for the coming Inspection Examina- 
tions, the author herewith is duplicating some typewritten questions and answers he prepared 
for previous tests and is adding additional matter. 

Through a varied experience, the author finds that many well qualified men fail on 
Civil Service Examinations for the reason that they do not understand what is required in 
the way of preparation, nor how answers should be made in the written test; this is 
especially the case in technical examinations; practical and technical men forgetting that all 
the examiner sees is the paper before him, the personality of the individual being lost. He 
must make up for this by being more explicit in his replies, using sketches wherever possible 
to illustrate his point. 

The author feels competent to strongly recommend the general rules given in the follow- 
ing pages, since he has taken approximately 50 Civil Service Examinations, having passed 
first on the list in 6 different tests during 1911 and 1912. 

A well qualified man need have no fear of the outcome of a Civil Service Test if he 
will but follow the rules given herein. 

Acknowledgement is made to the authors of many standard textbooks which are the 
basis of many answers contained herein and to Mr. Morris Jaffe, C. E,, who assisted in the 
preparation of many answers on City Pavement work. 

WILLIAM GOLDSMITH, 

Assoc. M. Am. Soe. C. E. 
New York, January 3, 1914. 



M 12 fSI4 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Page. 

Part I. — How to Pass a Civil Service Examination 5 

General Rules for Preparation and How to Answer 
Questions. 

Part II. — ^New York City's Inspection System 7 

A General Outline of How Public Works Are In- 
spected in New York. 

Part III.— The Inspector 8 

The Nature and Extent of His Duties, Locations, 
Opportunities, Hours, Relation of Inspectors to 
Contractors, Etc. 

Part IV. — Principles and Rules for Inspection 10 

A Catechism of Previous Civil Service Questions: 

General Highway Eules Excavations and Embank- 
Sheet Asphalt Pavements ments 

Asphalt Block Pavements Materials and Details of Con- 
Wood Block Pavements struction 

Granite Block Pavements Tunnel Work 

Brick Pavements Aqueduct Construction 

Macadam and Bituminous Dam Construction 

Eoads Iron and Steel 

Sewer Construction Laws and Ordinances 

Cast Iron and Steel Pipe Lines and Grades 

Construction 

Part v.— Report Writing, Methods, Forms, Records, Etc 41 

Measuration, Simple, Hydraulic and Engineering 
Formulae. 

Part VI. — Mathematics for the Inspector 45 

Part VII.— Specifications and How to Interpret Them 48 

Illustrated Digest of Specifications. 



PART I. 
HOW TO PASS A CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATION. 



(General rules for preparation and how to an- 
swer questions.) 

The candidate in preparing for a Civil Ser- 
vice examination should keep in mind that the 
object of the test is to secure men or women 
who are eligible to fill vacancies for which the 
examination is held. 

It is well therefore that the candidate should 
understand how the preliminaries for an ex- 
amination are arranged; let us take for ex- 
ample the coming examination for INSPECTOR 
OF PUBLIC WORKS. A department requests 
an eligible list from the Civil Service Commis- 
sion, they find no appropriate list or that the 
old one has no more names thereon; it is 
decided to hold an examination ; the examiner is 
ordered to prepare a form of advertisement an- 
nouncing the examination. He goes to the de- 
partment head where the vacancies are, ascer- 
tains the class of man required, what his ex- 
perience should be, how much technical train- 
ing is necessary and obtains all departmental 
rules, regulations and specifications. 

As a result of this interview we find the 
following advertisement appearing: 

Municipal Civil Service Commission, Muni- 
cipal Building, Room 1482, New York, De- 
cember 5, 1913. 

PUBLIC NOTICE IS HEREBY GIVEN 
that applications will be received from Friday, 
December 5, 1913, to 4 P. M., Friday, Decem- 
ber 19, 1913, for the position of 

Inspector, Public "Works, Grade 2. 

Certification will be made from list result- 
ting from this examination to fill vacancies 
in the positions of Inspector of Regulating, 
Grading and Paving, Inspector of Sewer Con- 
struction, Inspector of Sewer Connections, In- 
spector of Street Openings and Inspector of 
Incumbrances. 

No applications delivered at the office of 
the Commission, by mail or otherwise, after 
4 p. m. FRIDAY, DECEMBER 19, 1913, will 
be accepted. Application blanks will be mailed 
upon request, but the Commission will not 
guarantee the delivery of the same. Applica- 
tions forwarded by mail upon which postage 
is not fully prepaid will not be accepted. 



Applicants must be citizens of the United 
States and residents of the State of New 
York. 

The subjects and weights of the examination 
are: Experience, 4; Duties, 5; Arithmetic, 1. 
Seventy per cent, required on the Duties paper ; 
70 per cent, on Experience and 70 per cent, 
on the entire examination. 

Applications for this examination must be 
filed on a special blank, Form B. Experience 
blanks will be issued with the applications and 
must be filed with the Commission at the time 
of filing applications. The Experience paper 
will then be rated. Candidates receiving less 
than 70 per cent, will not be summoned for the 
physical examination. Candidates failing in 
the physical examination will not be summoned 
for the mental test. 

Candidates will be tested as to their prac- 
tical knowledge of the details of the materials 
and construction work of highways, pavements, 
sewers, water pipe lines and other City work. 
They should be familiar in a general way 
with the laws and ordinances regarding such 
work and specifications for materials and work- 
manship and must be able to intelligently in- 
terpret them. They should be familiar with 
City practice and contractors' methods. 

Minimum age, 21 years; usual salary, $1,200 
per annum. 

There are at present six vacancies in the 
Borough of Manhattan and four in the Bor- 
ough of Queens. 

F. A. SPENCER, Secretary. 

Too much attention cannot be paid to a 
study of this announcement, in it you will 
find in compact form just the things you 
will be examined in and exactly what your 
experience must be in order to enter the ex- 
amination. It is an excellent guide to what 
your study should be in orfler to pass the 
test. 

Make most of your preparation on your 
weak subjects, obtain all previous examination 
questions which relate to the position, follow 
the same tactics that the examiner did — go 
to the appointing officer, ask appropriate ques- 
tions, obtain all rules, regulations and specifi- 
cations and so start from the same funda- 
mentals that the examiner did. 



When you get into the examination room 
the crucial test comes. Read the questions 
over quickly to get a general idea of the test. 
You are given a certain time in which to 
answer them. On a separate piece of paper 
figure out how much time you have for each 
answer. Make a time table to show you just 
what time each answer must be complete. Ad- 
here to this table and you will be certain to 
finish your work in time. Candidates have 
failed repeatedly in examinations due to the 
fact that their time was poorly divided, very 
often not being able to fijoish their answers 
within the time limit. 

In answering quesions try to put yourself 
in the place of the examiner. You will nearly 
always find that more than one construction 
can be placed on a question, it is difficult 
to decide which reply the examiner wants. In 
a case like this be certain to answer in all 
possible ways, stating in your answer that the 
question is ambiguous and you are therefore 
answering in all possible waj-s. 

Should a question not be clear and you do 
not understand what the examiner wants, start 
your answer by a supposition that you under- 
stand the question to mean this — ( ) 

then go on and answer with this assumption 
in effect. 

Should a question have, to your mind, some- 



thing missing, place the missing part in, giving 
your reason for so doing. 

Should you not have time to complete an 
answer and you believe not enough time was 
given in the test, state so on your examination 
paper. 

There has been more discussion on the ques- 
tion — Is a short or a long answer best? — than 
on any one point in Civil Service Examinations. 
In the opinion of the author the long answer 
is best, as a general rule, for the following 
reasons: 

While writing, new thoughts come to you, 
which, if placed on paper, will bring other 
thoughts, thus the whole idea is brought into 
the written answer. In a concise reply many 
important points may be omitted unless the 
candidate takes time to boil his ideas down 
to a concise form, which in itself would take 
as much time as the long reply, and then some- 
thing may be omitted. It is conceded one 
of the most difficult tasks to place ideas in 
concise form and it is further conceded that 
it takes time; the author does not see there- 
fore where an advantage is gained by the con- 
cise answer in a Civil Service Examination, 
since the same amount of time is taken up 
in either case. The author, has furthermore 
tried out the two systems on Civil Service 
Examinations and finds the long answer al- 
ways the winner. 



PART II. 
PUBLIC WORKS INSPECTION IN NEW YORK. 



A general outline of how Public Works are 
inspected in New York is: 

The Public Works here referred to are those 
which the ' * built up City prosecutes ' ' and does 
not include special projects, such as the Board 
of Water Supply Work, etc. 

The City is divided into five Boroughs, in 
charge of each being an elective Bor- 
ough President. He has control of the 
construction and maintenance of pavements, 
sewers, sidewalks, in fact, everything between 
building lines. He also has control of the 
erection of new buildings and the plumbing 
therein. 

Taking Manhattan Borough as an example, 
we find a Commissioner of Public Works who 
has under him the Bureau of Highways, the 
Bureau of Sewers and the Bureau of Public 
Buildings and Offices. 

The Bureau of Highways is subdivided into 
a Division of New Construction, a Division of 
Maintenance, a Sidewalk Division, a Patrol 
Inspection Division, a Permit Division and 
a Chemical Division. 

The Inspector of Public Works may be used 
anywhere in the Bureau of Highways, Sewers, 
Public Buildings and Offices or the Consulting 
Engineer's Office. It is therefore necessary 



that he be familiar with each and everyone 
of these divisions. 

The inspector usually works eight hours a 
day, has daily and weekly reports to fill out 
and mail to the office. His work is steady and 
he is allowed two weeks vacation each year. 

He must wear his badge where it can be seen 
while he is on the work. He should be court- 
eous to the public and remember that he is 
on the work as the City's representative. 

Some of the Civil Service titles now in 
vogue for Inspectors are: 

Inspector of Eegulating, Grading and Pa- 
ving. 

Inspector of Sewer Construction. 

Inspector of Sewer Connections. 

Inspector of Masonry. 

Inspector of PubKc Works. 

Inspector of Hydrants and Stop Cocks. 

Inspector of Vaults. 

Inspector of Complaints. 

Inspector of Licenses. 

Inspector of Water Meters. 

And many others. 

The tendency now is to combine many of 
these under one title, so that a man may be 
transferred from one kind of work to another, 
giving him steady employment and providing 
against a violation of Civil Service rules. 



PART III. 
THE PUBLIC WORKS INSPECTOR. 

THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF HIS DUTIES. 



The following outlines wiU give you a gen- 
eral idea of the Inspector's duty, which you 
should bear in mind in your answers to ex- 
amination questions. 

The Inspector should know thoroughly the 
specifications for the work he is inspecting. 

The Inspector should remember that it is his 
duty to see that the specifications are complied 
with, but also that he should be a help rather 
than a hindrance to the Contractor. 

He should get ''along" with the Contrac- 
tor's foreman, if at all possible, and if not 
possible or if there are any points in question, 
the matter should be immediately referred to 
the Engineer in charge. 

Inspectors of various departments are as- 
signed to their respective places by the Engi- 
neer. Each Inspector should be constantly 
present on his work while it is in progress. 
He should call the attention of the Contractor 
or his foreman to any departure from the 
specifications or the orders of the engineers. 
Should this notice be disregarded, he should im- 
mediately report the facts to the Engineer. 

The Inspector should be on hand when the 
engineers set stakes, give grades, etc., and 
should assist them if necessary. He should 
familiarize himself with the instrument, as he 
may be called upon to give line and grade. 

The Engineer acts as the chief inspector of 
the construction under his charge and keeps 
in close touch with the general progress of 
the work, with which he should be familiar 
in every detail. He is responsible for the effi- 
ciency of his inspectors and decides promptly 
questions at issue between his assistants or 
inspectors and the contractors. 

All dealings with contractors are governed 
by the terms of the contract, the rights and 
duties of both parties to the contract being 
well defined. Under no circumstance shall 
there be duplication of orders or uncertainty 
as to the persons responsible for giving orders. 
Written orders of a general nature should be 
given contractors by the engineer only by 
his specific direction. 

The engineer should keep a diary, in which 



should be entered the records of written re- 
ports of inspectors and orders to contractors. 
He should keep the Chief Engineer informed 
of his orders to inspectors and contractors. 
Copies of orders and information concerning 
them, which are of sufficient importance, should 
be forwarded to the Chief Engineer. A diary 
should also be kept by the Chief Engineer in 
his office, which should include a summary 
of the reports of the various engineers. 

The inspector should keep careful and com- 
plete notes of anything which may be con- 
strued to be extra work, and of all damage 
to the work. Too much emphasis cannot be 
laid on the importance of keeping records com- 
plete and up to date for a possible basis for 
or against claims for extra work or damages. 

Accidents resulting in injury to persons or 
property or other matters out of the ordinary 
routine, should be reported in detail on ap- 
proved forms to the engineer by the inspector 
witnessing or having cognizance of them. Care 
should be taken to give the names and ad- 
dresses of all witnesses and the exact time 
and place of accidents. The engineer may add 
to the report of his subordinate when neces- 
sary to make it complete. Photographs or 
drawings should accompany accident reports 
when necessary. 

In order to determine as nearly as possible, 
the cost of the work from time to time, care- 
ful records of the contractors plants, force 
and material should be kept on suitable forms. 
Drawings showing the arrangement of ma- 
chinery and description of method should be 
made. 

Inspectors should keep full records of the 
several kinds of work done, of the number 
of men employed in the various classes, their 
probable pay, etc., and of the materials used. 
Eecords should also be kept of the contrac- 
tor's tools, and the cost of running machinery. 
In addition to the cost of labor and ma- 
terials, separate records should be kept, if 
possible, of the administrative cost, including 
salaries of the superintendent, bookkeepers and 
other transportation, office supplies, etc., of 
the general work, including the setting up 

8 



of the plant and removing it and such shop 
work as is chargeable to the whole contract. 
These general items should not be distributed, 
but should be reported separately. 

Use ' ' engineman ' ' for a person who runs 
the engine or cares for machinery, to dis- 
tinguish him from a professional engineer. 

The position of Inspector of Public Works 
or Engineer Inspector (Civil), in the City of 
New York includes the positions of Inspector 
of Eegulating, Grading and Paving; Inspector 
of Sewers; Inspector of Masonry; Inspectors 
of Complaints and Inspector of Incumbrances. 

The object of establishing this new position 
in New York is to create a list from which 
men could be transferred from one work to 
another, this giving a man continuous employ- 
ment and placing him on a yearly salary. This 
makes it possible to secure higher grade men. 

The men who are appointed from this list 
are insured practically permanent work, this 



being the sole object of establishing the com- 
bined list. Thr position is, therefore, an un- 
usually attractive one to engineering college 
graduates or to experienced men looking for 
steady work the year round. 

The usual hours for work are from 8 a. m. 
to 5 p. m., on rainy days special assignments 
are given. 

It is possible by promotion examinations in 
the Civil Service to become an Assistant Engi- 
neer from the grade of Inspector; the op- 
portunities for advancement are therefore ex- 
ceptional. 

For maintenance work. Inspectors are assign- 
ed to gangs and are given regulation Inspec- 
tion forms to fill out, on pavement repair the 
Inspector should insist on marking out patches 
to be replaced. 

Some Inspectors are assigned to Patrol work 
or on Incumbrances, for these a thorough 
knowledge of City Ordinances is essential. 



PART IV. 
PRINCIPLES AND RULES FOR INSPECTIONS. 



In question and answer form including pre- 
vious Civil Service questions correctly an- 
swered. 

The answers indicate in a general way what 
is required of the candidate; wherever possi- 
ble make sketches to make clearer your an- 
swer. 

GENERAL, HIGHWAY QUESTIONS. 

Q. Name the different pavements used in 
City streets? 

A. Macadam, ordinary and Bitulitic, Gran- 
ite, ordinary and improved; sheet asphalt, as- 
phalt block, wood block and brick. 

Q. Describe the character of a first-class 
pavement for use in the City? 

A. It should be impervious, smooth, hard, 
durable, noiseless, clean and sanitary; should 
afford a good foot hold for horses and be 
fit for use in low and steep grades. It should 
be cheap to construct and maintain. 

Q. (a) What is the least grade that is 
desirable for the gutters of a street? (&) 
Where the grade between two intersections is 
too flat, by what expedient may better grades 
be obtained without disturbing the cross- 
streets? 

A. (a) For smooth pavement, such as 
sheet and block asphalts, the gutter grade 
should be not less than 1-2 per cent. For 
rough pavement, such as granite or macadam, 
it should be not less than 1 to 1 1-2 per cent, 
(b) The elevation at the top of the block 
in question is made higher at either intersec- 
tion, producing what is called a summit. This 
causes the water to be shed in both directions 
towards the crossings. 

Q. What are the minimum and maximum 
allovmble grades, (a) For granite blocTc pave- 
ment? (b) For asphalt pavement? (c) Wood? 
(d) macadam? 

A. Minimum. Maximum. 

(a) 1.5% 5% and up. 

(b) V2% 21/2% 

(c) .8% 5% 

(d) 1% 31/2% to 5% 



Q. (a) What are the usual side slopes al- 
lowable in excavations or embankments, in 
earth, (b) in rocTc? 

A. (a) Loose earth, loam and gravel, 1^^ 
to 1; sand, 2 to 1; wet clay, 3 to 1. (b) 
Loose rock, % to 1; sound rock, 14 to 1. 

Q. Describe the stones to be used for curb? 
(a) as to size? (&) quality? (c) dressing? 

A. (a) The stones shall be 10 inches deep, 
5 inches thick and 3^^ feet long, (b) Shall 
be free from seams and imperfections and equal 
in quality to the best North River bluestone. 
(c) The top shall be dressed to a bevel of 
^2 inch, and the face for a depth of 9 inches, 
and the back for a depth of 3 inches, shall be 
dressed to a surface which shall have no de- 
pression measuring more than 14 inch. The 
bottom shall be not less 3 inches wide and shall 
be rough squared. 

Q. What are the principal requirements in 
setting a curbstone? 

A. The curb shall be set in concrete, true 
to line and grade, on a face batter of y^ inch 
in its depth. The concrete foundation shall 
be 6 inches thick on the front, back and bot- 
tom of curbstone and shall extend to the back 
to within 4 inches from the top of the stone. 

Q, Describe briefly the qualities of and 
setting of flagstones for a sidewallc? 

A. All flagging of satisfactory and uniform 
color, free from sap, seams, flaws, drill-holes 
and discolorations. It shall have a smooth sur- 
face and be 3 feet in length, 4 feet in width 
and be 3 inches thick. The stones shall be 
dressed with opposite sides parallel and ad- 
jacent sides at right angles and the edges dress- 
ed a distance down of 1 inch. The stones should 
fit closely to circular corners, gas lamp posts, 
etc. The flagging shall be laid in regular 
courses 4 feet in width and shall be firmly 
bedded to the grade and pitch required on 
3 inches of steam ashes or sand, free from 
clay and loam. The joint should be filled 
to full depth with 1 to 2 Portland cement mor- 
tar and left clean on the surface. 

Q. What is the standard pitch to tvhich 
the New YorJc City sidewalks are laid? 



10 



A. The pitch or fall from the house line 
to the curb is usually 2 inches in 10 feet. 
(This is an ordinance.) 

SHEET ASPHALT PAVEMENTS. 

Q. What is asphalt, and what are its char- 
acteristics? 

A. Asphalt is a natural (mineral) bitumen, 
and may be either liquid or solid. It is ad- 
hesive, viscous, ductile and elastic or may be- 
come so on application of heat. 

Q. What is "asphalt" mid how does it dif- 
fer from "tar"? 

A. Asphaltum or asphalt is a solid or com- 
pact variety of bitumen. It is a mineral sub- 
stance composed of different hydro carbons 
and is found and mixed from deposits 
which are widely diffused throughout the 
world. Tar is a thick resinous sub- 
stance, dark brown in color, obtained by burn- 
ing pine and fir trees. It is also a by-product 
of gas. It is similar in appearance in some 
respects to asphalt, but has none of the asphal- 
tic properities. 

Q. Row is asphalt ic pavement made? 

A. The pavement mixture for asphalt 
streets, usually consists of the following: (a) 
Asphaltie cement. (Eefined asphalt, heavy 
petroleum, oil or liquid asphalt.) (b) Clean, 
sharp sand, (c) Finely powdered inorganic 
dust. 

Q. What precautions must he taTcen when 
laying the mixture (asphalf) in place on the 
street? 

A. Precuations must be taken: 1 — That 
the surface of the binder, on which the asphalt 
is to be laid, is clean and free from moisture. 
2 — That the surface of the binder is 2 inches 
below the finished surface of the street. 3 — 
That where the new work joins the old, the 
joint is well trimmed of broken or crushed 
asphalt and thoroughly painted with asphalt 
cement. 4 — That the joints are well tamped 
and that the surface is thoroughly rolled with 
a ten-ton roller. 

Q. How would you determine if the mix- 
ture is a good one for street use? 

A. The mixture should not be burned, nor 
should it be too cold so lumps form, and is 
hard to work and to roll. It should roll easily 
from the carts, in which it is brought, much 
like ordinary sand would. It should be in a 
condition to be easily worked with a rake, 
and be capable of being smoothed with a hot 
smoothing iron. A thermometer should be used 
to note that the temperature is correct. 

Q. How would you detect a ' * burned ' ' 
mixture? 

A. A "burned" mixture can be detected 
from the fact that the asphalt loses its bright 



lustre and assumes a dull brownish hue. Also 
it is not viscous and looses its adhesive quali- 
ties and so seams are formed in its surface 
when rolled. 

Q. Why is it oijectionaile to lay asphalt 
on a wet foundation? 

A. When the hot asphalt is laid on a wet 
foundation, the water present is turned into 
steam, causing the asphalt to separate from the 
foundation and from the old portions of ex- 
isting pavement. Fissures or cracks are formed 
in the asphalt by the escaping steam, which 
weakens the pavement and hastens its disin- 
tegration under the action of traffic. 

Q. What are the specifications as to the 
size of the stones to be used in common 
binder? 

A. The common binder shall be composed 
of clean broken stone, passing a 1^/4 inch 
screen, not more than 10% of which shall pass 
a No. 10 screen. 

Q. What is meant by "close-mixture"? 

A. '* Close- mixture, " or binder, refer to 
binder made up of graded broken stones, not 
larger than 1 inch, mixed with graded sand 
and suitable quantity of asphaltie cement to 
thoroughly coat each particle of the composi- 
tion. 

Q. How is the asphalt and binder protected 
from being cooled while it is carted and be- 
fore it is used on the street? 

A. While carted from the plant and being 
used on the street, the material should be well 
covered with heavy canvas, which should be 
weighed down to keep in the heat. It is some- 
times required that the carts be provided with 
heating apparatus to keep the material at the 
proper temperature. 

Q. How is ordinary binder prepared? 

A. The stone is heated to not higher than 
325 degrees Fahrenheit and then thoroughly 
mixed by machinery, with asphaltie cement at 
300O to 324 Fahrenheit, in such proportions 
as shall be acceptable to the engineer. 

Q. How is close-binder prepared and laid? 

A. See previous question. Where close-binder 
is used it is laid in layers of such thickness that 
when thoroughly rolled it will be compressed 
to % inches instead of 1 inch, as when or- 
dinary binder is used. The wearing surface 
is then laid 1^2 inches thick instead of 2 
inches. 

Q. What are the principle requirements in 
relaying asphalt pavements? 

A. In relaying asphalt pavement, the old 
stone foundation should be removed and all 
poor objectionable material underlying the sub- 
grade must be replaced with sand or good 



11 



earth watered and rolled. The concrete founda- 
tion is then placed upon the surface thus formed 
and is well tamped and the upper surface made 
fairly smooth and parallel to the finished sur- 
face of the pavement. 

The course of binder, which is generally 
1 inch thick, is next put on and thoroughly 
rolled with a steam roller and is bonded with 
the existing binder. The edge of the old as- 
phalt where it joins the new must be "trim- 
med" of all loose and broken portions and 
painted with asphaltic cement. The paving 
pitch is then deposited, spread out to a 2 
inch layer and at the joint it is tamped and 
smoothed to insure a perfect union with the 
old pavement. The asphalt is finally rolled 
with a heavy steam roller and a thin layer 
of hydraulic cement is spread over it. 

Q. In preparation of the surface of con- 
crete to receive hinder, or hinder to receive 
asphalt top, what points must he guarded 
against? Explain? 

A. Care should be taken that no dirt, dust 
or stones, that have accidently fallen on the 
concrete or binder remains thereon. In the 
case of depositing binder on concrete, the con- 
crete should be thoroughly scrubbed before 
the binder is placed. In both cases all water 
and moisture must be removed before hot ma- 
terial is laid. 

Q. What temperature should asphalt he 
when hr ought on the worlc? (a) What are the 
effects if it is too hot or too cold? 

A. The temperature must be not less than 
2500 Fahrenheit, (b) If it is too hot, it wiD 
form into cracks when rolled and will lose its 
adhesive quaUties. (c) If it is too cold, it 
forms into lumps and can not be rolled or 
compressed. 

Q. Bow can you tell whether paving pitch 
has heen overheated or not? What are the 
effects of overheating on its working qual- 
ities? 

A. Overheating paving pitch causes it to 
become cracked. Overheating makes the pa- 
ving pitch brittle and destroys its working qual- 
ities. 

Q. State as nearly as you can the cause, 
(a) of the formation of long cracTcs across 
an asphalt street, (h) the shoving up into 
waves, (c) the hreaJcing up or wear in spots? 

A. (a) Long cracks are formed in asphalt 
due to the unequal settlement of the founda- 
tion, also to unequal contraction of the differ- 
ent materials of the pavement, (b) In warm 
weather where the foundation course of con- 
crete or stone is too smooth to form a bond 
between it and the binder the pavement will 
sup under the action of traffic and form into 
waves. (c) Due to bad work in standing 
water, making repairs in the pavement, to the 



decomposing action of standing water, snow, 
rain; also to the burning of the pavement in 
spots by fires. 

Q. How may water effect an asphalt street? 
(6) State what is done to prevent this? 

A. (a) Standing water dissolves the im- 
purities in the asphalt, thus weakening it and 
causing its destruction under the action of 
traffic, (b) This is prevented by giving the 
street an even and large enough grade to 
thoroughly and quickly shed the water. The 
gutters are protected by painting them for a 
width of 12 to 15 inches next to the curb with 
pure asphaltic cement. 

Q. What are the rules as to rolling asphalt, 
as to the weight of roller, and method and 
amount of rolling? 

A. The asphalt is given its initial com- 
pression by means of a ' * hand roller, ' ' which 
is worked by laborers who pass the hand roller 
several times over the surface after it has 
been smoothed with hot smoothing irons. A 
heavy steam roller, weighing 10 tons, is then 
passed over the asphalt until it has been thor- 
oughly compressed and is two inches thick. 
Hydraulic cement is then spread over the 
asphalt and the surface again rolled. The 
rolling should preferably be done in sweep- 
ing circles from the gutter towards the crown. 

Q. What would you consider the hest finish 
to have on the surface of a concrete hed for 
an asphalt pavement; that it should he smooth 
or left rough? State your reasons? 

A. It should not be made too smooth, but 
should allow a sufficient adhesion between the 
binder and concrete foundation, thus prevent- 
ing the slipping of the pavement and its con- 
sequent waves. 

Q. What is meant by a noiseless sewer or 
water manhole cover? 

A. A cover, the surface of which is 
depressed and filled with sheet asphalt to the 
level of the rim. 

Q. After a repair patch is cut out and be- 
fore the binder is put in, what must he done 
to the foundation to insure good work? 

A. Where the foundation is stone, the old 
binder must be loosened and entirely removed 
and the joints cleaned out to 1 inch in depth. 
The concrete foundation should be thoroughly 
cleaned and swept with stiff brooms. The 
joints or edges of the patch should be trimmed 
to remove all loose parts, and well painted 
to the full depth of the joint with asphaltic 
cement. All water and moisture should be 
removed from the foundation before the binder 
is put in. 

Q. Is a curb patch treated the same as a 
patch in the center of the street? If not, 
explain in what the treatment differs? 



12 



(6 

00 

o o 

(D I— ' 






CD 





H> 




S' 


O 










2 


1^ 




t? 


^^ 




^ s 


r+ CD 






5 


< 


5 a; 

CO t=i 

« 2 


8- g" 


^ 


^o„ 


- c:> 


^ 


to 


M 


o 


5 


h3 


s 


rt- 


M 


u 


M^ 






a>' 


o 


cy 


Pt 


o 


3 


v.. 






o^ 


g 


a 


t3* 


o 


m 


^ 


!25 


r1- 


>-i 




o 




W 


CD 




5 


•ri 




O 






trj 


£2. 


o" 


W 


tj 


t^ 




QTQ 








H» 




p 


O 




a»q 






? 9 






fi 


> 


^c. 


^ 5- 


< 


^ I 


oi orq 


H 




g 


M £$ 


^ S 


t?^ 


«r % 


^.r 


h3 


a> 


* v? 




3 a 

CD ca 


M 


^ 




^ 


S 


'^ 


? 


w 


t 


5t 


g 


CD 


v.. 


g 


C 


s'. 


t^ 


i-i 






1 


5* 




05 


M 


« 


o 


^ 

? 




CD 


e^ 




►tS 


^. 






n' 




? 








00 " 



o 






at 



13 



A. No. A strip 12 to 15 inches next to 
the curb is coated with asphaltic cement, after 
having been thoroughly tamped and smoothed 
with a smoothing iron. 

Q. State how you would lay the tinder to 
insure good worTc? 

A. The binder should be raked uniformly 
over the foundation to a thickness that when 
rolled with a steam roller of 10 tons, it will 
be compressed to a thickness of 1 inch, for com- 
mon binder, and 1% inches for close binder. 
The binder near the edges of the patch should 
be well- tamped and the edges should be pro- 
tected by placing strips of wood against them 
to prevent the roller from clipping the edges. 

Q. What do specifications call for ivith re- 
gards to thicJcness of binder and asphalt? Can 
specification always he complied with? 

A. The binder course should be 1 inch 
thick, for common binder, and the wearing 
surface 2 inches thick. In old streets where 
the pavements have been worn down to be less 
than 3 inches for binder and top, the binder is 
made less than 1 inch; if the patch is small, 
the binder may be omitted. 

Q. If the joints of the patch are too thin 
to put in the required depth of the material, 
what vjould you do to secure the best ivorTo 
possible? 

A. If the edges of the patch are too thin, 
the patch must be enlarged until thicker ma- 
terial is encountered, or, if the patch is a 
large one, the material may be heaped in the 
center and made the required thickness to about 
1 foot from the edges and levelled down to the 
existing surface. 

Q. Hoiv do you treat the edges of a patch 
after it is cut out? 

A. The edges of the patch should be 
trimmed, to remove all cracks or crushed parts 
of the existing pavement, and then should be 
painted to full depth of joints with asphalt 
cement. 

Q. Is it possible to do worlc in freezing 
weather? {Below 20° F.) 

A. It is difficult to make good repairs at 
a temperature below 20o F. unless extra pre- 
cautions are taken to keep the asphalt and 
binder from becoming cold. Surface burners 
should be used to heat the foundation and ad- 
joining pavement. 

Q. What is done to the asphalt in a patch 
after the material is dumped into the excava- 
tion? 

A. The asphalt is spread evenly over the 
foundation with the aid of a rake. All hard 
lumps or foreign matter is removed at the 
same time. The material should be of such 
depth that when rolled by a steam roller, it 



will be compressed to a 2 inch thickness. The 
material near joints are well tamped and 
smoothed to insure perfect union with the old 
pavement. Hydraulic cement is then spread 
over the surface and the patch is rolled again. 

Q. (a) For what purpose are hand rollers 
used on asphalt? (b) How are they manipu- 
lated? 

A. (a) Hand rollers are used to give the 
asphalt its initial compression before it is 
finally rolled and compressed with a steam 
roller, (b) A horizontal handle is attached 
to the roller, which is grasped by two laborers 
who pull the roller back and forth over the 
asphalt. A third man with a rag soaked with 
kerosene walks along and wipes all particles 
of asphalt or other foreign matter from the 
roller. 

Q. What are the important points in the 
resetting of old stone foundations of a patch? 

A. Poor or spongy material underlying the 
subgrade should be removed and replaced with 
good loam or sand, watered and rolled. The 
stone should be replaced in even rows, joints 
should be broken and block well tamped to a 
true even surface 3 inches below the surface 
of the finished street. The joints should be 
filled with paving pitch to within 1 inch from 
the top of the blocks to insure a thorough 
bond with the binder. 

Q. What are the important points to con- 
sider in resetting of old concrete foundation 
in a patch? 

A. For preparation of subgrade see previous 
answers. Where the new concrete joins the 
old foundation, or where the old concrete has 
only partly worn, the surface of the old con- 
crete is placed thereon. The new part of the 
foundation must be made the same thickness 
as the rest, so that its top surface is parallel 
to the finished surface of the pavement, and 
three inches below it. 

Q. What should be done to prevent accidents 
if at the end of the day you find that more 
patches have been cut out than can be filled? 

A. If more patches have been cut out than 
can be filled in, the excavation can be made 
safe and accidents avoided by dumping into 
the excavation broken pieces of old asphalt 
till ^he top is even with the rest of the pave- 
ment. 

Q. What provisions are made to insure fresh 
patches from being destroyed by traffic? 

A. To prevent patches from being destroyed, 
the street should be closed by placing barri- 
cades at the intersecting street. Where the 
street is a main artery of travel, this may not 
be feasible, in which case the barricades should 
be placed in front of such patch to warn wagons 
not to drive over them. 



14 



Pj ^. O ^ 






t3| CD 



fS 



Q 

» §3 

S S. S " = 

O "» P O cc 

H P ^ p. 

g M ?t- i»^ o 

e. w o* - ^ 

O 3 O Pj ^ 

O g C3 

ilL tJ' ^ CD 

i^O O^ ^ g 

«" ^ 3 ? 

<rt- P "tS cJ- 

P Pj M Hj p 

CtJ CD O ^t3 

v^ =^' o ,^ o 

p "^ ^ E s- 

ci- o 2 ® p 

&- CO ^ ^ e 

O CD Pj pj 



O '^ 



2. S 



^ „ ca » 

qq g- 3- P o 

'^ i" a. S <=§ 

OQ P p § 5. 

l-j Pj . C» 

§ 1^ - i ^ 



?;■• p 



PS? 

CD 



5" 


£S 


P 




ITl- 


P 


O ^' 


o 


Pi 




1 § 

CD 1 


§- 


1 


C5 




C_l. 


CD 


CD 




O 

E' 




9^ 

3 s: 


JO 




2 CD 




CD 


Q 


» -^ 




>-S 


o 


■^ w 






O 
a 

s 


3 ' 






SJ" 


S- rt> 




OS 


CD 


^^ 




$=! 






H 


Hi 






Hs 


O 


p. pi 




CD 


g 




Q 
td 

H 
O 

bd 
a 

HH 

O 
> 

i-j 
O 
!Z1 
CO 



^i^Sfel 



15 



Q. How would you test a patch to deter- 
mine if it is hard enough to allow traffic to go 
over it? 

A. Whether a patch has become sufficiently 
hardened can easily be determined by pressing 
the heel of the shoe upon it and noting the 
result . If an impression is made it is not 
hard enough. 

Q. How is asphalt worJced in at the joints 
to insure good Pinion with the old pavement? 

A. A wearing material of asphalt is well 
tamped at all points or edges of the patch 
and the edges thoroughly smoothed with hot 
smoothing irons, so as to secure a perfect union 
with the old pavement. 

Q. What is meant iy "header stone"? 

A. Stones placed at the joints between the 
abutting pavements of different character. 
They are generally bluestone, 4 to 5 inches 
thick, 9 inches deep and 3 feet long. 

ASPHALT BI.OCK PAVEMENTS. 

Q. State the important points in laying aii 
asphalt 'blocJc pavement. 

A. The size of the blocks should be 5 inches 
by 3 inches deep by 12 inches long and be com- 
posed of asphaltic cement, crushed trap rock 
and inorganic stone dust. The subgrade should 
be prepared in the usual manner and should 
be 9 inches below the finished pavement. It 
shall be thoroughly rolled and rammed. Upon 
the subgrade should be placed a 514 inch layer 
of cement concrete and upon this concrete 
foundation should be spread a bed of cement 
mortar ^^ inch in thickness. The blocks 
should be immediately laid with close joints 
and uniform top surface. In laying the blocks 
the pavers should stand upon the blocks al- 
ready laid. The blocks should be laid at right 
angles to the line of the street and aU longi- 
tudinal joints should be broken by a lap of at 
least 4 inches. The lateral joints of block 
should be as light as possible and the longi- 
tudinal joints should be closed by pressing each 
course in the direction of its length, by a lever. 
The blocks should finally be covered with clean 
fine sand, which should be swept into the joints 
and should remain in the pavement not less 
than 30 days. 

Q. What are the advantages and disadvan- 
tages of a7i asphalt bloclc pavement as compared 
with sheet asphalt? 

A. Asphalt block, like sheet block, is noise- 
less, smooth and sanitary. It has the advantage 
that it provides a better footing for horses and 
can be employed on slightly steeper grades. It is, 
however, more costly than sheet asphalt, both to 
construct and maintain in some cases, although 
easier to repair. 

Q. What are the requirements for laying 
the blocks for an asphalt block pavement? 



A. Each course of blocks should be uniform 
in width and depth, with all joints close and 
end joints broken by a lap of 4 inches, and 
while paving, thi i)a\rers must stand on those 
blocks already laid. Any unevenness in the 
blocks must be forrected by taking up and re- 
laying the blocks. Fractured and broken 
blocks must be replaced by new ones. At cross- 
ings the blocks should be laid in "herring- 
bone ' ' fashion and the gutters should be formed 
of two and three courses of blocks laid with 
tlieir longest dimension parallel with the side- 
walk. 

Q. What are the sizes of blocks ordinarily 
used in the City? 

A. The blocks are usually 3x4 or 5x12 inches 
long and a variation of % inch should be suf- 
ficient grounds for rejection of a block. 

Q. What are the character and proportiom 
of the materials of which the blocks are com- 
posed? 

A. The blocks are composed of crushed trap 
rock, pulverized carbonate of lime and asphal- 
tic cement mixed in the following proportions: 

Asphaltic cement 6 to 11 parts 

Crushed trap rock 89 to 74 parts 

Pulverized carbonate of lime... 5 to 15 parts 

The trap rock used must be free from dirt 
and other impurities and crushed so that no 
particle is larger than % inch. The blocks 
must receive a compression in the molds of not 
less than 120 tons and must weigh 15% lbs. 
per block. 

Q. What test must be made on the blocks 
to insure good quality? 

A. Blocks should be tested for: 

1, Specific gravity. 

2. Abrasion. 
8. Tension. 
4. Crushing. 

When extracted with bisulphate of carbon 
and after the evaporation of the solvent, the 
blocks shall yield not less than 5% nor more 
than 714% of bituminous matter. 

WOOD BLOCK PA\TEMENT8. 

Q. State the important points in laying 
ivood-block pavements? 

A. The subgrade should be prepared in the 
usual manner as for first class pavements. The 
foundation and cushion courses should con- 
sist of Portland cement concrete and clean, 
sharp sand 6 inches and 1 inch in depth re- 
spectively. The blocks should be 3x4x8 inches 
of Southern Yellow Pine or Southern Black Gum 
properly treated with oil to render them water- 
proof. On the cushion course of the sand the 
b Jocks should be laid with the grain vortical 
ar.d in parallel courses perpendicular to the 



16 



3 cr cr o » 

P ^ o ^ g 

S' ^ ^ ^ s 

ce p 05 CO Pj 

P 0? W 05 ,_, td 

rt- H^ ^ O 5 oo 

■^ 1 '^ * ^ ° 

2 g- 2. Hs 

2 2-2 ?^ ^1-, 

o 4 ^ ? -^ 

S g- p. K^ 

I ^. ^ 1^ S 

ct- I— I rf- O 

O t=" P {3" 5 

2- - ^ I 2 

-" p^ 2. ^ w 

. rt- ^ d: i-i •* 



o g- P^ '^ 






J— ' Pj CC5 j^ B 

^ St B- 2 

so O P tS jjr; 

O £ ^ ^ <» 

CD ^ gj K^ 

5 1=^ ^ ^ ts 

CD tl £i "^ ^ 

I - t ? ' 

CD Hi T3 C ^ 

M. p! r B ^ 

pj r" &. 

fS <j CD 

o M- 5: CD 

5. g- ^ ^"^ 

I ° § g 

_^ PT" CD H— p 

S^ «= 5 g &. 

P fiS CD ^ O 

<rh 5 ti _ 

^ & ^ ^ § 



S ^. £• 






o "■ ^ 5' 

& !2- p: i^ s- 




O 
CO 

a 



> 

l-HI 

o 

CG 



curb. The joints should be as tight as possible 
and the blocks should b«? firmly bedded in the 
sand bed. The joints should then be filled y^ith 
clean, sharp sand, which should be broomed to 
fill the joints completely. The surface should 
then be rolled with a 5-ton steam roller, till 
the surface is uniform and the blocks firmly 
bedded. After rolling, the surface should be 
covered with Y2 inch of screened sand which 
should be broomed until the joints are com- 
pletely filled. 

Q. What are the advantages and disad- 
vantages of wood-Mock pavement? 

A. It is smooth and quite durable and 
adapted to heavy traffic, is cheap to maintain 
and wears well. It is, however, not adapted 
to steep grades; is made slippery by rain or 
water; is not very clean; may S'^veii aud 
crack, and is difficult to replace to its original 
condition when disturbed by repair or openings 
in the street on account of adjacent blocks 
being worn down. 

Q. What are important points to look after 
in laying the hlocTcs for a luood-Nock pave- 
mtnt? 

A. The blocks should be set on the cu.=;hion 
coat with the fibre vertical in parallel courses, 
with the length of the blocks at right angles 
to the axis of the street. No joints should be 
more than % inch in width. The blocks should 
be laid that all longitudinal joints will be 
broken by a lap of at least 2 inches. At inter- 
sections the courses are to be laid diagonally 
or in a " herring-bone ' ' fashion. The gut- 
ters should be formed of three courses of blocks 
laid parallel to the curb, a space filled with 
sand will be left upon the curb to allow for 
expansion. 

Q. What are the usual dimensions of the 
Hock used in wood-Hock pavement? 

A. Three inches wide, 4 inches deep and 
8 inches long. The blocks may not vary more 
than 1-16 inch in depth or width, nor more than 
1 inch in length. 

Q. (a) Of what timher are the blocks in 
New York City at the present time made? 
(6) What defects would you look for in wood 
llocks? 

A. (a) The timbers used are either South- 
ern Yellow Pine or Southern Black Gum. (b) 
The blocks should be free from unsound, loose or 
hollow knots, worm holes and knot holes, through 
shakes or round shakes, that show on the sur- 
face. They should have square edges and shall 
show 2-3 hearts on both sides. 

GRANITE BLOCK PAVEMENTS. 

Q. Outline the essential parts of laying a 
first cla^s stone block pavement. 

A. (a) The site should be grubbed and 



all trees, shrubs, loose stones, decayed or vege- 
table matter overlying the subgrade, should 
be removed. 

(b) All spongy or poor earth below the 
subgrade should be replaced by good, sound 
earth, or loam, watered and rolled. 

(c) Upon the subgrade a 6" layer should 
be laid as a foundation with its top parallel 
to the finished surface of the pavement. 

(d) Upon the concrete is deposited a cush- 
ion course of 1^ ' ' clean, course sand. 

(e) Upon the sand are placed the stone 
blocks of the prescribed size in rows which 
are uniform in depth and width and at right 
angles to the line of the street. 

(f) After the blocks are laid, they are cov- 
ered with a clean, dry gravel that has been 
previously heated. 

(g) The blocks must then be thoroughly 
rammed till they are brought to an even sur- 
face true to the given grade. 

(h) Boiling paving cement should finally 
be poured into the joints (which previously 
have been filled with gravel to within 3 inches 
from the top), tiU joints are completely filled. 

Q. In what way is poor work done by pavers 
in selecting and placing paving blocks? 

A. By not selecting stones for the same row 
that have equal width and depth; 2nd by 
not ramming and back-ramming blocks till they 
are firm and unyielding; 3rd. by not break- 
ing joints properly, so as to form a good bond; 
4th. by not filling joints to the required depth 
with gravel and then with paving pitch. 

Q. What is meant by ''back-ramming" and 
what is its object? 

A. "Back-ramming" refers to the re-ram- 
ming of blocks that have already been suf- 
ficiently rammed but which have been shoved 
out of place or loosened by the ramming of 
other blocks nearby. Back-ramming brings 
them back to a firm bearing. 

Q. In excavating for a street 60 feet wide, 
through rock, for a standard stone block pave- 
ment, (a) state just what depth you would 
excavate below the finished surface of the pave- 
ment. (&) What are the reasons for this? 

A. (a) The rock should be e^fcavated at 
least 3 '3 " below the finished surface of the 
pavement; this will allow about 15" for the 
thickness of blocks, binder course, and concrete 
foundation, and at least 2 feet below the bot- 
tom of the concrete which is to be filled in 
with good sound loam, watered and rolled, 
(b) If the concrete were laid directly upon 
the rock it might be injured by blasting for 
buildings on the street; also it would not af- 



18 



j>;3 


pj 




U 


CD 






t3 






e-t- 






J'-OQ 




-^ p" 


Rii 




o <n- 


• 




3 =» 






O 05 


t^ 




3 & 


a> 






P 




ora 


1—1 


° g- 


Js* 


g 




~^ 


^ 


2 o 


^ 


o 


s- 


<1 


ft> Hs 




H 


S" 


h- ' 
1— ' 


d 


^ 


v..^ 


W 


^ 


± 




c^* 


Q 


p' 


Pj* 


(^ 


cr<5 




w 


i-j 




.. 


^ 


CO 




SL 


i^ 




"*• 


? 






O 




ci- 


rf^ 




n. 


^ 




rt- 






ts' 






^ 


Pi 






CD 




2: 


*Ti 




ty 


<n- 




^ '=H 


B'GQ 




^ o 






^5- 


-i' 




M- c^ 


- 




C3 on 






CfQ 


S"t^ 




3s 


CD 




1^ 

1^. 


?^^ 




00 


o 








CO era 


O 


>► 


B^ 




w 


|| 


1— ' 

to 


Ki 




.,." 


w 



I i V ;' Pr A^?<: v»»^^ 



^ 



\ 



^ 



r> 









■^ 



.,^ 






^•'J^ 



J^ 



2 g 



si 



CD td 



5 H 



o 

Q 



> 

1-3 

o 

02 



19 



ford sufficient elasticity or resilance to traffic. 
The 2 ' of earth or loam is put in to act as a 
cushion. 

Q. In inspecting a lot of paving hlocTcs, 
state every reason for rejecting bloclcs. 

A. 1. All blocks made from outcrop, soft 
or brittle stone. 

2. All blocks having seams, laminations, 
drill-holes or other imperfections. 

3. All blocks varying by more than ^ inch 
in any dimension from that prescribed in the 
specifications. 

4. All blocks that are not rectangular on top 
and sides that are not uniform in thickness and 
dressed with fair and true surfaces free from 
bunches. 

Q. With good material and good worJc, how 
wide should the spacing hetiveen the rows in 
a stone pavement he? (6) How wide should 
the space between the ends of the stones in a 
row he? (c) What are the reasons for this 
spacing ? 

A. (a) For ordinary granite the spaces 
between the rows in a stone pavement should 
be no more than % inch, (b) The end joints 
of stones in different courses should lap by at 
least 3 inches. (c) The joints between rows 
should be as narrow as possible, so that the 
filling of gravel and pitch will not wash or be 
swept away and allow water to percolate under 
the stones. The end joints are lapped so that 
no continuous cracks or ruts will form in the 
pavements (parallel to the length of the street) 
due to the action of the traffic. 

Q. Describe in full the operation of thor- 
oughly ramming a stone blocTc pavement. 

A. After the blocks have been carefully 
laid in parallel courses perpendicular to the 
line of the street, they should be thoroughly 
rammed with a 50-lb. hand hammer, till they 
are brought to a firm, unyielding bearing and 
fco the required curve and grade. Blocks which 
are low should be removed, the cushion course 
of sand should be increased and the stone re- 
placed and re-rammed. Eamming should not 
proceed nearer to the edge of the work than 20 
feet. The ramming should commence after a 
stretch of 20 to 30 feet of blocks have been 
set and there should at all times be employed 
one rammer to every two pavers. 

Q. Describe the operation of filling prop- 
erly the joints in a stone block pavement. 

A. The joints should be filled with heated, 
clean, dry gravel to within 3 inches from the 
surface of the pavement. It should then be 
filled full to the top with boiling paving pitch 
and again be filled with gravel to the top of the 
pavement. Paving pitch should again be 
poured in to fill all the voids in the joints. A 
layer of sand is finally spread over the blocks. 



Q. In preparing for setting a stone pave- 
ment, how do you set the guide stones as to 
position and elevation? (b) Is allowance made 
for ramming in doing this? 

A. The best way to set guide stones for a 
stone pavement is to set a row of stones true 
to grade and elevation, every 25 to 30 feet 
across the roadway, perpendicular to the line 
of the street, (b) The stones are set to the 
grade of the street at the point assuming as- 
phalt completed. 

BRICK PAVEJEENTS. 

Q. Describe in your own language a perfect 
paving brick, considering, (a) Its form, fin- 
ish and dimensions; (b) the materials of 
which it is composed and its physical condi- 
tion. 

A. (a) First class paving brick should 
have true, even faces, sharp edges and be uni- 
form in size, free from fine cracks or checks. 
The bricks should be thoroughly burned and 
be non-porous. The usual size for brick is 
81^x4x21/4 inches, (b) The clay from which 
the bricks are made should be free from lime, 
should contain a big per cent of silica and be 
capable of withstanding a red heat for a suf- 
ficient length of time to render brick hard 
and homogeneous and impervious to water. A 
good pavi?ng brick should: 

1. Not be acted upon by acids. 

2. Should not absorb more than 1-600 of 
its weight of water in 48 hours. 

3. Should not be susceptible to polish. 

4. Should be rough to the touch resembling 
fine sand paper. 

5. Should emit a clean, ringing sound when 
struck. 

6. Should, when broken, show a compact, 
uniform, cross-grained structure, free from air- 
holes and pebbles. 

7. Should not spall, chip, or scale when 
quickly struck on the edges. 

8. Should be hard, but not brittle. 

Q. Describe the construction of a first class 
brick pavement. 

A. The subgrade should be prepared in the 
usual manner for first class pavements. The 
bricks shall be well pressed and thoroughly 
burned and be Si/^x4x2i/^ inches in size. The 
foundation and cushion course shall be of Port- 
land cement concrete and clean coarse sand, 
5 to 6 inches and 1 inch in depth respectively. 
The bricks shall be laid on the cushion course 
in parallel rows with the length of the bricks at 
right angles to the axis of the street and breaks 
joints by at least 3 inches. The bricks shall 



be used throughout, except at closing points. 
The bricks shall be rammed to solid bearing 
with 50-lb. rammers and all low portions rec- 
tified by removing bricks and increasing the 
cushion course. The joints shall be filled with 
grout, asphaltic cement, a paving pitch and a 
y2 inch layer of clean sand and shall be spread 
over the surface of the entire pavement. 

Q. To what tests would you sxibject a irich 
to determine ivhether or not it is suitable for 
use in street pavements? 

A. A brick to be used for paving should 
be subjected to the following tests: 

1. Abrasion or impact test, (called the 
"Eattler-Test")- 

2. Absorption. 

3. Tranverse-breaking. 

4. Crushing. 

Q. What are the advantages and disadvan- 
tages of a hriclc pavement? 

A. The advantages are: 

1. Ease of traction. 

2. Offers good foothold for horses. 

3. Not too noisy. 

4. Fairly clean. 

5. Adaptable to all grades. 

6. Easily repaired and cleaned. 

7. Absorbs but little moisture. 

8. Pleasing in appearance. 

The disadvantages are: 

1. Not suitable to heavy traffic. 

2. Breaks and crumbles under the action of 
traffic and frost. 

aiACADAM ROADS. 

Q. What are the important features to in- 
spect in the construction of a macadam road? 

A. Assuming the road to be constructed over 
a new stretch of country the Inspector shall 
see to the following: 

1. That all shrubs, tree trunks and all per- 
ishable matter has been removed from the 
foundation. 

2. That wherever the materials at the 
established subgrade are too soft for support- 
ing the road, the materials be excavated further 
so that a firm bearing is secured. Spaces thus 
excavated are filled with gravel or earth se- 
lected and thoroughly compacted. 

3. That the subgrade then be thoroughly 
wetted and compacted with a heavy road 
roller. 

4. That the proper thickness, size and qual- 
ity of crushed rock is used, then thoroughly 



wetted and rolled, seeing that the road is rolled 
from the outside to the center. 

5. That the second layer is thoroughly 
wetted and rolled in the same manner. 

6. That the screenings are then spread 
properly, wetted and thoroughly rolled. 

7. That the shoulders are also rolled, so 
that "raveliitg" is prevented. Through the 
entire construction, the Inspector should see 
that the grades are being closely followed. 

Q. Describe the construction of a bituminous 
macadam pavement. 

A. After the subgrade has been properly 
prepared, there should be spread thereon 6 
inches of 2% inch broken stone, rolled into a 
4 inch layer, during the rolling sufficient % 
inch stone and screening mixed to thoroughly 
bind the first course, should be spread upon and 
rolled into this course. On top of this should 
be spread a layer of 4 inches of 1% inch stone 
of the same quality as the first course. After 
the roller has passed over this layer several 
times, sufficient % inch, clean, broken stone 
to bind the second course should be spread and 
rolled dry into this course until the surface 
is smooth and true to grade; there should 
then be sprinkled uniformly with the machine 
1% gallons to the square yard of macadam 
road binder with asphalt as its base heated to 
300° F. Eolling should follow until ultimate 
compression has been reached. After this the 
surface should be treated with the same kind 
of asphaltic binder at the rate of % gallon 
per square yard, upon which should be dis- 
tributed in a thin coat, washed quartz grits. 
This is followed by final rolling, the roller to 
be used shall weigh not less than 12 tons. 

SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 

Q. What are the essential requirements in 
a well constructed sewer? 

A. A well constructed sewer: 

1. Must have a solid foundation. 

2. Must be laid true to line and grade. 

3. Must have a velocity of flow sufficient 
to prevent settlement but not high enough to 
cause ''scour.'' 

4. Must have manholes at summits and val- 
leys at all changes of direction, and enough 
lamp holes to permit thorough examination. 

5. Must be constructed water-tight. 

6. Must be laid below the frost line and 
low enough to take the waste from all houses 
along its route. 

7. The outlet must be carried to a point 
where it will not cause a nuisance, or be a men- 
ace to health. 



21 



Q. What is the best bond for hricJc servers? 

A. The best bond is a rowlock bond, which 
consists of concentric rings, each longitudinal 
course breaking joints with the adjacent 
courses, and with the rings above and below. 
All bricks should be laid as stretchers. 

Q. Where are "headers" used in a circular 
tricTc sewer? 

A. Most specifications prohibit the use of 
"headers" in brick sewers, especially in the 
upper arch portions. In large brick sewers, 
however, where three or more rings of brick 
are used, the rings are laid alternately as 
headers and stretchers with such modifications 
as are necessary to secure a perfect bond. 

Q. Describe an alteration in line of a large 
brick sewer and the method of caring for the 
floiv in the meanwhile. 

A. The sewer is first built along the new 
line, and when ready to join on to the old 
work, a bulkhead of brick and cement bags is 
built at the joints where the change of line 
begins and ends. The arch between the points 
having already been removed, a temporary 
flume of sufficient size to carry the greatest flow 
is built into the bulkhead and suspended or 
supported in the line of the old sewer and far 
above the old invert to permit the construction 
of the new invert at the points of connecion. 

Q. Suppose the top of a grade staTce set at 
one end of a 25 foot length of sewer was 13 
feet 3 inches above grade, and at the other end 
11 feet 7 inches above grade, how would you 
fix the grade line? 

A. Upon the stake whose top is 13 feet 3 
inches above grade, mark a point 7 inches be- 
low the top of the other stake. A string 
stretched taut between the points thus marked 
will be parallel to, and 11 feet above grade. 
Points on grade are then readily obtained by 
measuring down 11 feet from the string. 

Q. Describe a good job of tamping earth 
around a sewer, giving best arrangement of 
men and other requirements. 

A. The trench should be filled with layers 
not exceeding 4 inches thick in the loose earth, 
and the earth used is not to be dumped in 
piles, but should be spread evenly and smoothed 
or compressed by iron tampers. The number 
of men using tampers should be in the propor- 
tion of 4 tampers to 1 shoveller, (according to 
Kapid Transit Commission specifications). In 
case of pipe sewers, special precautions are 
necessary; the earth must be carefully laid 
in, tamped and solidly rammed down under 
and around the pipes, with proper tools made 
for this purpose. 

Q. How soon can "filling in" be done about 
a pipe sewer? What governs this? 

A. The back filling should not be com- 



menced, in the case of a pipe sewer, until the 
cement joints have hardened sufficiently. 

Q. Under what conditions would you think 
it desirable to leave the sheeting in a trench 
and why? 

A. In soft ground, the lower course of sheet- 
ing should not be removed after the arch 
of the sewer has been built, as the arch is 
liable to crack if uneven settlement of the 
material above takes place. The cost of tak- 
ing out sheeting as against leaving it in place 
must also be considered. 

Q. Of what are soil pipes constructed and 
where trapped? 

A. All mains, soil pipes, waste or vent pipes, 
must be constructed of iron, steel or brass. 
Soil pipes when connected with any fijsture 
must be trapped before entering the sewer and 
the trap so arranged that it can be reached 
for cleaning and be protected from frost. 

Q. Why should traps be connected with vent 
pipes? 

A. To carry off any gases collecting in the 
traps, and insure proper ventilation. Other- 
wise gases might force the seal in the traps 
and work back in the house. 

Q. What kinds of traps may be used? What 
are their sizes and how set? 

A. Only water-seal traps may be used with 
a seal of at least 1^ inches. They must be 
well supported and set true with regard to their 
water level. The discharge from any fiixture 
must not pass through more than one trap 
before reaching the house drain. 

CAST IRON AND STEEL PIPE CONSTRUC- 
TION. 

Q. (o) Describe fully the laying of a 
length of large cast-iron water pipe, with the 
precautions needed. (&) The method of mak- 
ing a tight joint with pipe already set. (c) 
The same as (6) for a line of steel pipe? 

A. (a) The spigots of the water pipe 
should be so adjusted in the socket as to give 
a uniform space all around, and if any pipe 
does not allow sufficient space it must be re- 
placed by one of proper dimensions. 

Previous to laying the pipe into the trench 
it should be subjected to a rigid inspection by 
both the contractor and Inspector and those 
which do not come up to the specifications 
must be rejected. The pipe should then be 
properly fitted together on the surface in the 
order in which it is to be used. To facilitate 
the process of laying, the top of each pipe 
should be marked with chalk so that the pipe 
previously laid in the trench, be disturbed as 
little as possible. The pipes are carefully low- 
ered into the trench and laid so that the inter- 
ior surface conforms accurately on the bottom 
to the grades and alignment given. 



The trenches must be wide enough to admit 
of the laying of the pipe and especially as 
above mentioned and wherever required all 
necessary widening must be done before the 
pipe is lowered. Furthermore before any pipe 
is put in place a small excavation must be 
made in the bottom of the previously graded 
trench to receive the projecting part of the 
hub and socket so that each pipe will have a 
firm and uniform bearing. 

(b) The joint should at all times be at least 
5-16 of an inch in thickness. In lead and gasket 
joints, the depth of lead should not be less than 
% inch. Gaskets of clean, sound hemp yarn, 
braided or twisted, should be used to pack these 
joints. The lead should be of the best quality, 
pure and soft, suitable for caulking and secur- 
ing a tight and permanent joint. Before run- 
ning the lead, the joints are carefully wiped 
clean and dry, the joint is then run full at one 
pouring, the' metal pot being kept within 50 
feet of joint. 

(c) The joints should then be carefully 
caulked to secure a tight joint without over 
straining the iron of the bell. The edges of 
the plate are planed; lap joints are caulked 
all around, both inside and outside. At the 
end of each course and at the junction of the 
circular and longitudinal seams, the plates 
should be reduced to a fine edge through which 
two rivets of the circular seam are driven to 
insure tightness. 

Q. Bow should caulking he done to make 
the joints of steel pipe tight? 

A. All joints should be filled up by suitable 
caulking with proper tools. The temporary 
blocking should be removed, care being taken 
to prevent settlement of the pipe. The edges 
of plates that are % inch or more thick shall 
be planed. Lap joints should be caulked all 
around, both inside and outside, and body joints 
shall be caulked outside only. At the end of 
each course, and at the junction of the circu- 
lar and longitudinal seams, the plates shall be 
reduced to a fine edge, for which two rivets 
of the circular seam shall be driven to insure 
tightness. 

Q. (a) State all the requirements in a first 
class job of riveting. (6) Descriie the proper 
method of inspecting such a job. 

A. The work should be carefully and ac- 
curately laid out, and all rivet holes should 
be spaced with precision, punched holes should 
be clean cut, without torn or ragged edges. 
Corresponding holes should coincide vrithin 
1-32 of an inch. 

Hydraulic, compressed air or steam machin- 
ery should be used for riveting. The pressure 
should be retained until the rivet head has been 
perfectly formed and the metal has lost its red 
color. Any rivet in any way defective should 



be cut out and replaced by an acceptable one. 

All rivets should be perfect in form and com- 
pletely fill the holes when driving; their heads 
should be of proper form and size, free from 
checks and cracks and truly concentric with 
the shank. 

(b) The operations as described in (a) 
should be watched and a strict accordance with 
them should be insisted upon. After the work 
is completed the rivets should be inspected. 
A small ball-pean hammer tapped on the rivets 
with a button on the other side, will show 
whether they are secure; by inspection caulk- 
ing of rivets, etc., can be discovered, the evi- 
dence of the caulking tool being easily de- 
tected. 

Q. When a line of riveted steel or wrought 
iron water pipe is being laid, what should be 
done after the riveting is completed, before the 
trench is filled? 

A. All joints should be filled up by suita- 
ble caulking with proper tools, the temporary 
blocking and wedging should be removed, care 
being taken to prevent settlement of the pipe. 
A concrete foundation is then placed between 
the cradles, the outside and inside concrete and 
mortar being properly placed and then the 
trench is filled. 

Q. (a) In protecting iron or steel from 
rust by the use of either paint or cement, what 
essential requirement must be first observed? 
(6) How is this carried out in practice? 

A. (a) It should be entirely free from mill 
scale, from rust and from all dirt, grease or 
other foreign matter, (b) In practice this is 
done by steel brushes, by pickling or by sand 
blasting. The initial cleaning may be done at 
the mill, provided the steel is adequately pro- 
tected, and necessary field cleaning is done. 

Note: Pickling is the process of placing the 
steel in a solution of sulphuric acid, which dis- 
solves all mill scale, etc. 

Q. How would you inspect a large iron cast- 
ing delivered on the work? 

A. The size and dimensions would first have 
to be checked to note whether it conforms with 
the plans. To note whether the castings are 
sound, a small hammer is tapped along its 
length. Sand holes or hollow points would give 
a hollow sound. When there is no open or 
back in the cast iron column, the foundry should 
provide small drilled holes for the purpose of 
measuring the thickness of the metal at differ- 
ent points. The casting should be tested for 
honeycomb by tapping with a hammer. It 
should be examined for blow holes that are 
filled in by mould sand. This filling causes 
a dullness when struck by a hammer. Sand 
holes, blow holes, and cold shuts should be 
carefully examined. The connections, such as 
lugs, brackets, capitals and bases, are most 



23 



carefully looked after to prevent accident after 
erection. 

Q. How would you inspect a joi in rivet- 
ing? State fully. 

A. Machine riveting is more preferable on 
account of being more uniform, accurate and 
faster; the ends only of iron rivets should 
be heated to a white heat; steel rivets to be 
bright cherry red in a fire rather thick with 
moderate draught. A cold rivet should bend 
around another rivet (same dimension) in the 
form of a horse shoe bend and show no crack 
or flaw. A hot rivet should bend around another 
rivet in the form of a ring and show no cracks [ 
A hot rivet head should be flattened to 2^ 
diameters and show no crack or flaw. 

Q. State fully Jiow you xoould inspect vitri- 
fied pipe? 

A. See that the pipe is thoroughly burned 
and glazed with uo blow holes or defects in 
shape, that the bottom of the trench or founda- 
tion is rounded to fit the lower half of the 
body of the pipe with proper depressions for 
sockets. If the ground is soft or sandy, the 
earth should be rammed carefully, but solidly 
in and around the lower part of the pipe. 
Joints should be caulked with hydraulic ce- 
ment. The end sections should be protected 
with a timber or masonry bulkhead. 

EXCAVATIONS AND EMBANKMENTS. 

Q. If 1,000 cuhic yards of each of the fol- 
lowing materials in borrow pits are placed in 
enibanlcnfients for one month, ahout how many 
cubic yards will each then measure? (a) 
Gravel. (6) Loam, (c) Puddled clay, (d) 
BocTc crushed. 

A. Although earth, when first dug, and 
loosely thrown out, swells about 1-5 part, so 
that a cubic yard in place, averages about 1 1-5 
cubic yards when dug, yet when made into an 
embankment, it gradually subsides, settles or 
shrinks into a less bulk than it occupied be- 
fore being dug. The percentage of shrinkage 
is approximately for (a) 8 per cent, (b) 12 
per cent, (c) 25 per cent, (d) 5 per cent. 
This will give respectively, 920 cubic yards, 
880 cubic yards, 750 cubic yards and 950 cubic 
yards. 

Q. Where an aqueduct is in open cut, what 
necessary requirements should be complied with 
before any permanent worJc is put in place? 

A. All top soil should be removed with the 
view to its subsequent use. Open trenches 
should be excavated between points to be desig- 
nated for the aqueduct culverts, gauging man- 
hole, etc. In earth trench, it should be made 
to the shape required, for type to be built, in 
rock to grade given, in embankment it should 
remain 6 weeks before placing any work 
thereon. 



Q. Suppose an onbankment on which a struc- 
ture is to be placed, to have been thoroughly 
compacted during its construction, is there any 
reason for not building the aqueduct upon it 
immediately? State your knowledge and give 
reasons. 

A. Yes. No matter how well compacted it 
may be during its construction, settlement will 
occur in it. Xo construction should be made 
upon it until at least 6 weeks have elapsed 
after its completion. 

A. (a) Aside from surveys, plans, machin- 
ery, derricks and all temporary work, what does 
the contractor do first in building an aqueduct 
except in tunnels? How is such toork paid for? 
(&) What are the first permanent structures 
to be built and ichy? 

A. (a) The right of way is cleared and 
grubbed. If in a cut the excavation is made 
to grade or to such a point as will give a good, 
solid foundation. If quick sand or any other 
unstable foundation is discovered it must be 
treated so that it will be as firm as any other 
section. In rock excavation, the rock is exca- 
vated to the required gi-ade, all disintegrated 
or loose rock being removed. This work is 
paid for under the headings "Clearing and 
Grubbing, ' ' and ' ' Excavation, Earth and 
Eock. " (b) The first permanent structures 
to be built are culverts, bridges, roads and em- 
bankments, culverts to take care of drainage 
crossing the aqueduct line to prevent floods 
and damage to the work and not interfere with 
the natural drainage of the country. Bridges 
where the aqueduct is to cross a road or stream. 
Eoads to replace those spoiled or broken up 
during construction. Embankments so that 
they will have plenty of time to settle before 
the structures are placed on it. 

Q. In blasting, what rules or precautions 
must be observed? 

A. The contractor should comply with aU 
City Ordinances. Before a blast is fired in the 
City, rock should be covered with mats and 
logs. In residential sections blasts should not 
be fired between the hours of 8 P. M. and 7 
A, M. No more than a 12-hour supply should 
be kept on hand. It should be divided as much 
as possible and kept under lock and key and 
separate from caps and exploders. Near water 
pipes rocks within 5 feet should be removed 
by hand. 

Q. What is the best way to secure a thor- 
ough bond betiveen the earth in an embankment 
and the earth beneath? 

A. Top soil and all perishable matter should 
be stripped. The base under the proposed em- 
bankment should be picked and on sloping 
ground stepped. The embankment material 
should be selected. AU stones larger than 3 
inches in diameter should be thrown out. Ma- 
terials should be deposited in horizontal layers 



24 



which will not exceed 3 inches in thickness after 
rolling, and each layer should be sufficiently 
watered and rolled with a heavy grooved roller 
to thoroughly compact and solidify the ma- 
terial. 

Q. Explain clearly what is meant iy 
" shrinTcage," and Jioio does it vary for 
different materials; how is it allowed for, and 
hovj is the contractor paid for it? 

A. Although earth when first dug, and 
loosely thrown out, swells about 1-5 part, so 
that a cubic yard in place averages about 1 1-5 
cubic yards when dug, yet when made into an 
embankment it gradually subsides, settles or 
shrinks into a less bulk than it occupied before 
being dug. 

The percentage of shrinkage is approxi- 
mately : 

For gravel 8 per cent 

For loam 12 per cent 

For puddled clay 25 per cent 

For crushed stone 5 per cent 

This shrinkage is allowed for when the 
grade stakes are given by the engineer. The 
contractor is paid to finished grade, that is 
after the shrinkage has taken place. 

Q. What are the usual requirements of 
specifications as regards top soil which is to 
be used later on? 

A. Before the general excavation for any 
portion of the work is done, the top soil should 
be removed from the site of all excavations, 
embankments and spoilbanks. This should be 
kept separate and used for the embankment 
upon the completion of the structure. The con- 
tractor is paid per cubic yard, assuming that 
12 inches deep have been removed. He must 
remove and place aside all the top soil there is, 
whether 3 inches or 30 inches deep, he is only 
paid for a 12 inch depth, however. 

Q. State what you understand by the term 
' ' Begulating. ' ' 

A. * ' Eegulating " means the fixing of the 
principle lines of a street, i. e., house, curb 
and center lines to conform with the lines as 
established by the Bureau of Street Openings, 
Also smoothing out the irregularities of the 
old streets, and giving the new pavement a 
uniform grade. 

Q. State what you understand by the term 
* * Grading. ' ' 

A. By "Grading'' of a street is meant to 
raise or lower by excavation or to fill the sur- 
face of the street to conform with the grades 
established by the Bureau of Street Openings. 

Q. What is a ''Cut and Fill?" 

A. "Cut and Fill" as applied to streets 
means the excavating of materials from the 
surface or the depositing of material on the 



surface of the existing road to bring it to the 
elevation as established by the Bureau of Street 
Openings. 

Q. What do you understand to be the dif- 
ference between materials classified as "Earth" 
and those classified as "rocic" in paving for 
grading jobs? 

A. Under "Earth" excavating (New York 
City specifications), is included loam, sand, 
gravel and clay and all loose material contain- 
ing stones less than 1 cubic foot. Under 
"Loose Eock" is included all boulders and 
detached masses of rocks more than 1 cubic 
foot and less than 3 cubic feet in volume; 
also all material of a rock nature which can 
be loosened with a pick. Under ' ' Solid Rock ' ' 
is included all solid bed rock, rock found in 
ledges or big boulders more than 1 cubic yard 
in volume which must be blasted to be removed. 

Q. Describe the steps of construction of a 
first class pavement on a street to take the 
place of a common dirt road. 

A. Surveys are made to fix the lines of the 
street and the road is cross-sectioned for mak- 
ing profiles and establishing grades. Maps are 
then made showing the quantities of the differ- 
ent materials ,the limits of pavements and the 
dimensions of same. Grade stakes are then 
set at center line, curb line, house line and 
slopes and the cut or fill is marked on them. 
The subgrade of the road is then brought to its 
required elevation by filling or excavating. In 
the latter case the bottom should be freed from 
all poor or decayed matter, watered and tamped 
or rolled and smoothed, to a surface parallel 
to the finished pavement. The foundation 
course is next spread. This is usually concrete 
with a layer of sand or binder depending on 
the surface to he used. Upon this is placed the 
wearing surface or blocks of asphalt, wood or 
brick. The sidewalk construction is carried 
on simultaneously with the roadway, the curb 
being set to line and grade by the engineers. 

Q. Where a high embanlcment is to be made 
in grading a street, state (a) whether it malces 
any difference how the material is distributed, 
and if so tvhat the rule is? (&) Give reasons. 

A. (a) The filling should be made in 
layers about 1 foot thick, the heavier materials 
being placed at the bottom of the embankment. 
The layers should be compressed by watering 
and ramming or rolling with a heavy roller. 
Another method is to fill in to a certain height 
and allow the material to settle under its own 
weight, then to fill again and so on till the top 
is reached, (b) The second method is not a 
very good one, as the embankment will not 
set sufficiently under its own weight but will 
subsequently destroy the pavement placed 
upon it. 

Q. If you are mahing a heavy fill across a 
marsh, how would you do the work so as to 
require the least amount of filling material? 



25 



A. I would increase the bearing power of 
the marsh, thus preventing the sinking of the 
filling material, in one of the following ways: 

1. By digging drains parallel to the site of 
the embankment and draining the foundation. 

2. By digging a trench for the foundation 
and filling it with suitable material. 

3. By compressing the ground by driving 
short piles. 

•i. By forming a raft to float on the soft 
ground by the use of hurdles, faeines and tim- 
ber platforms. 

5. By placing large boulders or rip-rap into 
the marsh, until a firm foundation is secured; 
a row of sheet piling outside the rip-rap is 
sometimes used so that a minimum of stone 
will be used. 

Q. State the different causes of accident 
you Tcnoic as having occurred in Masting. 

A. 1. Premature explosion in drill holes, 
due to careless and excessive ramming. 

2. Delayed explosion in a hole after the rest 
of the holes had exploded. 

3. Carelessness in handling dynamite re- 
sulting in dropping of stick. 

4. Excessive charge in drill holes, causing 
the breaking up of the rock and causing dam- 
age by flying fragments. 

0. Lack of due notice to pedestrians of the 
coming explosion, causing accident by flying 
rock. 

6. Explosions caused by warming and thaw- 
ing explosives by placing same near fire or in 
warm water and not using proper precautions 
for this operation. 

Q. When complete cross-section staTces are 
set for an emhanlcmeni having side slopes, (a) 
state just what marlcs are placed on the center 
stal-es and what they mean; (6) state the 
same for the slope staTces at the foot of the 
slopes. 

A. The center stakes are marked with a 
(C L) to indicate the center line of the embank- 
ment. This as well as the station is marked 
on the side facing the starting point of the 
work. On the other side is marked the cut (C) 
or fill (F) to the nearest foot, (b) The slope 
stakes at the foot of the slope should have 
marked upon their inner side, (S.S.), meaning 
Slope Stake, and indicates where the slope 
meets the surface of the ground. 

Q. When an excavation is to he made for 
placing a structure on earth, to what depth 
(as referred to the suhgrade) would you think 
it advisable to plow? 



A. It is not advisable to plow deeper than 
within 2 inches of the finished subgrade, be- 
cause the earth, if once disturbed, will shrink 
in time and cause settlement of the embank- 
ment. All stumps, decayed matter and large, 
loose stones should be removed with pick and 
shovel from the subgrade and replaced by firm 
earth or sand, watered and rolled. 

Q. (a) In preparing an emhanlcment on 
which to place a structure, how would you do 
the work? (6) as to the method of dumping; 
(c) as to the thickness of layers; (d) as to 
the method of compacting ; (e) as to material 
used? 

A. (a) To procure improved solidity the 
dumping should best be done by filling from 
the sides towards the center. This causes the 
earth to arrange itself in layers with a dip 
from the sides towards the center and makes 
a firm, safe embankment. (b) The layers 
should be from 8 to 10 inches thick, (c) The 
compacting should be done by watering and roll- 
ing with a heavy, grooved roller so that the 
layers are compressed to a thickness of 2 inches 
less than their original thickness. The filling 
shall be of good, firm earth, free from all 
frozen material, garbage, vegetables, spongy 
or unsuitable matter. 

Q. What preparation of the original sur- 
face would you make before beginning such 
an embankment? Give your reasons for so 
doing ? 

A. The surface should be grubbed and all 
grass stumps, roots and decayed vegetable mat- 
ter should be removed and the site excavated 
till good, firm foundation is encountered. It 
should then be watered and rolled to detect 
weak spots, which should be removed and re- 
placed with good, firm earth or gravel. Unless 
this is done, roots of trees or other vegetable 
matter may decompose and cause the embank- 
ment to settle and would then endanger the 
structure placed thereon. 

Q. What is a "borrow-pit?" (6) What 
are "spoil-banks?" 

A. (a) When the excavations along the road 
do not furnish sufficient material for the em- 
bankments, filling material is obtained by 
* * borrowing ' ' from excavations called * * bor- 
row-pits" made in the vicinity of the embank- 
ment, (b) When the excavation furnishes 
more material than is necessary for embank- 
ment, the excess is heaped in a convenient place 
near the road in banks called ' * spoil-baris. ' ' 

Q. (a) Describe clearly the material to be 
used to make a sound puddle wall in a dam. 
(b) Is it best that it be entirely free from 
gravel and small stones? (c) Give your 
reasons. 

A. (a) The best material for a puddle is 
composed of graded gravel mixed with sand 



26 



and 15 to 20% of clay. The gravel should 
be spread in layers with the clay upon it and 
then the sand is spread on the clay. This mass 
should be well wetted and mixed and then rolled 
with a heavy roller, (b) A puddle wall con- 
taining gravel or small stones is better than 
one entirely made of clay or loamy clay. It 
is more impervious. (a) In a wall con- 
sisting of gravelly clay, if the water should 
wash out the clay or fine sand, the larger parti- 
cles will fall into the place and intercept, 
first the coarser sand, next the particles of loam, 
which are drifted into the current of water; 
in this way the mass puddles itself automati- 
cally. 

Q. Describe the proper metliod of 'build- 
ing a puddle wall; (a) as to the thickness of 
layers; (6) as to the wetness of the mater- 
ial; (c) as to compacting. 

A. (a) The gravel should be spread in thin 
layers and the clay spread upon it, care being 
taken that the clay is not in lumps. The sand 
is spread last upon the whole mass, (b) Only 
enough water should be added to make a stiff 
paste, (c) After the mixing a heavy, grooved 
roller should be passed over the mass, so that 
it is well compacted. The mass, before being 
used, should be protected from dripping. 

GENEBAI. QUESTIONS ON MATERIALS AND 
DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION. 

Q. What records should the Inspector Jceep 
in his diary for an important construction 
worTc? 

A. He should note whether it is fair or 
raining, temperature, etc.; what time he re- 
ported for duty; what time he left; he should 
note the hours that the contractors worked, 
giving the number of Foremen, Laborers, 
Skilled Men, etc. When material is used, he 
should keep an accurate record of the amount, 
kind, proportions, and how placed. Any un- 
usual occurrences should be especially noted, 
particularly accidents. Should an accident 
occur, all particulars regarding the cause, and 
how it happened should be given, in short, his 
diary should contain a complete record of what 
has happened while he was there. 

Q. Define the following-, (a) "Berm;" 
(&) "Bench" {in tunnel worlc) ; (c) "In- 
vert;'' (d) "Soffit;" (e) "Bip-Bap;" (/) 
"Ashlar;" (g) " Elastic Limit." 

A. (a) A " Berm " is a horizontal surf ace, 
as if for a pathway, and forming a kind of 
step along the face of sloping grounds. In 
canals, the level top of the embankment oppo- 
site and corresponding to the tow-path is called 
the ''Berm." ''Berms" are used on all earth 
embankments for compacting purposes and to 
prevent erosion. 

(b) In tunnel excavation, when a top head- 



ing is driven, the ''Bench" is the mass of 
rock left, extending from approximately the 
springing line to the bottom of the tunnel. 

(c) An ''Invert" is a flat, inverted arch 
used for the floor of a tunnel. 

(d) The ''Soffit" is the lower or under- 
neath surface of an arch. 

(e) "Eip-Eap" is rough stone thrown hap- 
hazard into water to form a foundation or on 
an embankment to prevent erosion. 

(f) "Ashlar" is cut stone masonry made 
of the best grades of stone, all faces dressed, 
visible faces polished. 

(g) The point beyond which the strain is 
no longer proportioned to the strees is called 
the "Eiastic Limit." 

Q. Describe a quicTc test of the soundness 
and present condition of cement, to be made 
without apparatus whatsoever. 

A. Make a pat of neat cement about 3i^ 
inches in diameter and half an inch thick at 
the center, tapering to a thin edge, using 20% 
by weight, of water, allow the pat to stand on 
a glass plate over night under a damp cloth. 
In the morning set the pat in a can of water 
and boil three hours. If the cement is sound 
and free from excess lime, no cracking or 
distortion of the pat takes place. Crumbling 
or cracking of the pat is due to excess lime and 
indicates an unsound cement, or, in other words, 
the cement needs curing. 

Q. (a) What are the requirements respect- 
ing the laying of masonry in cold weather? 
(b) If it must be done, what precautions can 
be taken to obtain good results F 

A. (a) Concrete should not be mixed or 
deposited in the work in freezing weather with- 
out explicit permission from the engineer in 
charge. (b) If directed or permitted to 
build concrete structures in cold weather, re- 
quired or approved precautions should be taken 
for removing ice and frost from materials, in- 
cluding heating the water, the stone and sand; 
for protecting the newly laid masonry from 
freezing and for securing work satisfactory 
in all respects, satisfactory covering for the 
newly laid masonry and such additional ap- 
pliances and materials as may be required there- 
for, including steam pipes for keeping the air 
warm beneath the covering. 

Q. When concrete has to be deposited under 
water, what measures may be taken to reduce 
the washing away of cement to a minimum? 

A. There are several methods, such as: 

1. D^epositing in closed buckets. 

2. Depositing in closed bags. 

3. Depositing through a tremie. 

The third method is the best when properly 
managed. The tremie is a tube of sheet metal 



27 



long enough to reach the bottom of the water 
from the surface. The top of the tube is 
funnel-shaped. The tube is filled with concrete 
to flow out gradually at the bottom; the top 
of the tube is then filled again and the opera- 
tion repeated. If care is taken, concrete can 
be deposited by this method almost as quickly 
and as well as if no water were present. If 
properly handled no water should be in the 
tremie. ' that is, the concrete wiU not be de- 
posited through water. 

Q. (a) How may air huiiles he removed 
from moriar in seiting a stone or from concrete 
in depositing it in a mold? (&) In how thicJc 
layers should concrete he deposited to insure 
the tightest and the soundest worl:? 

A. (a) By being continuously and suf- 
ficiently joggled, the air may be expelled. 
Eamming with a tamper or treading with the 
foot is a method sometimes used, but joggling 
and spading is the far more satisfactory, (b) 
If a plastic mixture is used, concrete should 
not be deposited in layers more than 6 inches 
thick. A drier mixture used on slopes, for in- 
stance, should not be used in layers more than 
■i inches in thickness. 

Q. (a) JELow is a thorough inspection of the 
brick and mortar and workmanship of a job 
of brickwork made? (b) How can cavities 
in a filling job between the brick lining of the 
tunnel and the surrounding rock be located? 

A. (a) Brickwork should be laid in Portland 
cement mortar mixed, (usually), in proportion 
of one part cement to two parts sand. The 
cement and sand should fulfiU in all respects 
the usual specifications for concrete work, ex- 
cept that the sand should be finer. 

Brick should be of the best quality, hard- 
burned, regular and uniform in shape and 
size. They should be of compact texture, and 
after being thoroughly dried and immersed 
in water 24 hours, they should not absorb more 
than 16 9f in volume of water. "When struck 
together they should give a dull metallic ring. 
No bats should be used, except where whole 
bricks cannot be used, and nothing smaller 
than a half brick should be used in making 
closures. 

Brick should be thoroughly wet just before 
using. Each brick should be imbedded in mor- 
tar at the bottom, sides and ends at one op- 
eration, care being taken to fill every joint. 

They should be well and thoroly bonded. 
They should be laid to line with close joints, 
not exceeding 14 inch (usually), for face work. 

(b) By tapping with a wooden pole the 
joints can be located by the hollow sound 
at these points. Holes are sometimes drilled 
at intervals in the roof through the brick and 
a thin grout injected under pressure. This will 
find its way to all cavities. 



Q. (a) Describe the method to be used in 
making a complete inspection of a lot of piles? 
{b) Describe the inspection of driving the 
same? 

A. (a) They should be examined carefully 
to see that they conform in every way with 
the specifications: 

1 — The wood should be of grade specified. 

2 — Length should be as specified. 

3 — They should be straight, free from twists, 
shakes, etc. 

i — Specifications usually call for a diameter 
of at least 8 inches at small end; 12 inches 
at large end; these points should be looked 
after. 

PHes are usually floated in to a landing, 
where the inspector proceeds with his inspec- 
tion. With a tape, the length is measured, 
also the diameters at the large and small ends. 
With a small hatchet the kind of timber can 
be ascertained. If there is any doubt as to 
whether the pile is straight enough, a rule to 
observe is to stretch a string from the center 
of one end to the center of the other, if the 
center of the pile is any place more than 8 
inches from this line, it should be rejected. 

(b) A shoe is usually provided for driving 
the pile. The top is sawed off square and an 
iron hoop placed thereon to prevent brooming. 
It is up to the Inspector to see that the pLes 
are driven to the required bearing. In order 
to do this he must know the weight of the 
hammer, the drop and the consequent pene- 
tration of the pile, or the engineer in charge 
will supply him with a table showing the al- 
lowable penetration for the last 6 blows with 
certain drops of the hammer and he must see 
that driving continues until penetration is as 
specified. After being driven, he shaU see that 
they are sawed off to grade. 

Q. (a) What defects are to be looked for 
in yellow pine? (&) What standard sizes and 
lengths are always to be had in this market? 

A. (a) All lumber should be sound, well 
manufactured, full to size and should be free 
from the following defects: rnsound, loose 
and hollow knots, worm holes and knot holes; 
through shakes or round shakes that show on 
the surface, (b) The following are standard 
sizes to be had in this market: 2 in. by 10 
in, 12 in. or 6 in.; 2 in. by 10 in., 12 iiii., 2 
in., 3 in., 4 in., 6 in. : 6 in. by 6 in., 10 
in. or 12 in.; 10 in. by 10 in. or 12 in.; 12 
in. by 12 in. Lengths "are IS feet or 20 feet 
usually. 

Q. What are the requisities of good building 
stone? 

A. It should be cheap, durable and have 
strength and beauty. The primary factor which 



determines the value of a stone for structural 
purposes is its cheapness, that is, how much 
it will cost delivered on the ground; next in 
importance is its durability; unless a stone is 
suited to the conditions in which it is placed, 
there are few substances more liable to decay 
and utter failure. There is very little re- 
liable knowledge on this subject. Precedent 
is the only guide. The strength of stone in 
some instances is a cardinal quality, as when it 
is to form piers or columns to support great 
weights. If exposed to mechanical violence or 
unusual wear, strength is indispensible, beauty 
is more important to the architect than to the 
engineer; the stone should have a pleasing 
and durable color. 

Q. Describe the absorption test for hriclc, 
and what is indicated iy the result? 

A. The bricks are dried and then weighed; 
they are then immersed in water for twenty- 
four hours, or for forty-eight hours and weighed 
again, the difference in weight will give the 
amount of absorption. For paving purposes 
bricks absorbing one or more per cent, in 
twenty-four hours should not be accepted; as 
pavement stones, they are apt to crack in frosty 
weather, due to the fact of the water enter- 
ing the brick, then freezing, the consequent 
expansion cracking the brick. 

Q. Explain in detail how you would sample 
a shipment of five carloads of cement in bar- 
rels? 

A. Every tenth barrel is usually sampled. 
A cement auger made especially for this work 
is inserted in the side of the barrel, and the 
sample taken out. The barrels are numbered 
and the corresponding number put on the sam- 
ple. The cement is then tested for fineness, 
soundness and setting, and seven day tensile 
tests, neat and in mortar, in the form of stand- 
ard briquets. If any cement proves unsatisfac- 
tory, on first tests, including 28-day tensile 
test it should be subjected to a second set of 
tests. Should this test prove satisfactory, the 
cement would be accepted, should they prove 
imsatisfactory, every barrel, if necessary, should 
be tested, and if on the twenty-eight day ten- 
sile test, they prove unsatisfactory, the cement 
would be rejected, and the contractor ordered 
to have it removed. The cement should not con- 
tain more than one, two or three per cent, 
magnesia, its specific gravity should be 3,10, 
but not more than 3.25, at a temperature of 
212 degrees F. Its color should be uniform 
bluish-gray, free from yellow or brown par- 
ticles. The fineness should be such that not 
less than 92% would pass a No. 100 sieve, 
and not less than 75% a No. 200 sieve. It 
should develop initial set in not less than 
thirty minutes, and a hard set in not less 
than one hour, or more than ten hours. The 
tensile strength for neat cement should be for 
24 hours in immersed air, 20 lbs. per square 



inch, 7 days (1 day immersed in air, 6 days 
in water), 500 lbs. per square inch; 28 days, 
(1 day immersed air, 27 days in water), 600 
lbs. per square inch. For one part of cement, 
three parts of sand, the strength after 7 days' 
test should be 170 lbs. per square inch; after 
28 days, 225 lbs. per square inch. For sound- 
ness, three parts of neat cement about three 
inches in diameter, one-half inch thick at the 
center and tapering to thin edges, should be 
made on clean plates and kept in immersed air 
for 24 hours ,the pats should remain firm and 
hard, and show no signs of distortion, blotch- 
ing, checking, cracking or disintergration. 

Q. What are the characteristics of good 
timber of any Jcind? 

A, There are certain appearances which are 
characteristic of strong and durable timber, 
no matter to what class it belongs. In some 
species of timber, that specimen will, in gen- 
eral, be the strongest and the most durable 
which has grown the slowest, as shown by the 
narrowness of the anular rings. Good timber 
should be from the heart of a sound tree, 
the sap being entirely removed, the wood uni- 
form in substance, straight in fibre, free from 
large knots, flaws, shakes or blemishes of any 
kind. If freshly cut, it should smell sweet, the 
surface should not be woolly or clog the teeth 
of a saw, should be firm and bright with a 
sliky lustre when planed, a disagreeable odor 
indicates decay, and a dull appearance is a 
sign of bad timber. Good timber is sonorous 
when struck. 

A dull heavy sound indicates decay. Amongst 
resinous woods, those which have least rosin 
in their pores, and amongst non-resinous woods, 
those which have least sap or gum in them, 
are not generally the strongest and the most 
lasting. Darkness of color among colored woods 
is not generally a sign of strength and dura- 
bility. If a piece of sound timber be struck 
with a small hammer, the sound can be dis- 
tinctly heard by a person placing his ear 
against the further end, even should the stick 
be 50 feet long. If the timber is decayed, the 
sound would be faint. 

Q. What are the important points to in- 
spect in pile driving? (&) What record should 
le Icept? 

A. The Inspector should see that the piles 
are of proper length and cross-section. That 
they are straight, sound, free from shakes or 
bark. Specifications usually jstate that piles 
should be no less than 8 inches nor more than 
12 inches in diameter in the small end, and 
no less than 12 inches in the large end. Piles 
should be pointed before driving, and a steel 
shoe placed on them when necessary. An iron 
ring should be placed on the head of the pile 
to prevent brooming. The weight of the ham- 
mer should be checked by the inspector and 



29 



the fall in the last six blows noted. The In- 
spector should see that the piles are driven 
either to refusal or to the bearing required. 
In obtaining this bearing the ^'Engineering 
News formula" should be used. When the last 
six blows are made the Inspector should see 
that the pile is not broomed, that the hammer 
drops freely the required height. The piles 
should be sawed off to the required elevation, 
either by divers or by a saw attached to the pile 
driver. (b) The Inspector should keep a 
record of the time of driving, the exact loca- 
tion of the piles, every dimension, kind of 
timber and any unusual happening while the 
driving is going on. The amount of penetra- 
tion due to the last 6 blows should be noted and 
the bearing which such pile has, should be 
recorded. 

Q. Why should concrete not de thrown into 
place? (&) Why should rods in concrete 'be 
held rigid? (c) Why should stone te wet he- 
hefore laying mortar? (d) Why should the 
joints of masonry he pointed? (e) Why should 
weep holes be placed in a wall? 

A, (a) Because the concrete will separate, 
the heavier stone going to the bottom. This 
will make a concrete which is not well mixed, 
consequently it has not the desired strength, 
(b) So that they will retain the position in 
which they are to go or be placed when the 
concrete sets. Steel rods are designed to go 
in a certain position, as shown in the plan. 
If they do not go in this position, the struc- 
ture has not the strength for which it is de- 
signed, therefore the steel rods should be kept 
in place, (c) So that the water in the mortar 
will not be absorbed by the stone when it is 
mixed, also to clean the stone from all dirt 
and all foreign matter, (d) So that the spaces 
that are exposed to weather actions will have 
the best possible protection, (e) So that the 
water may seep through. Walls are usually 
designed for an earth pressure behind them. 
If water were present they would have to with- 
stand a hydrostatic pressure. Weep holes take 
care of this water, thus insuring the stability 
of the walls. 

Q. What are the Inspector's duties in tun- 
nel worTc? 

A. He should keep a correct record of the 
number of laborers, drillers, helpers, and other 
men employed and what work they accomplish. 
In excavation he should see that the proper 
precautions are taken, in order that the ex- 
cavation outside the " A " line has been trimmed 
off. He should see that dynamite regulations 
are complied with. He should help the head- 
ing foreman with his grade and line, making 
certain that no work is done on the bench be- 
fore all heading excavation outside the " A " line 
has been trimmed off. He should observe care- 
fully for any loose rock in the roof of the 
tunnel, should inspect the scaffolding in order 



to prevent accidents, in short, his work should 
be to see that the work progresses according 
to specifications and plans; to help the engineer 
whenever necessary and with proper foresight 
to prevent accidents. If an accident occurs, 
he should report it immediately to the engi- 
neer. It is his duty at the end of the weeks' 
work to send in a report, showing the work ac- 
complished. 

Q. Describe the several ways of filling the 
space between the roclc roof and the lining in 
the tunnel? 

A. The space is usually filled with dry pack- 
ing, consisting of rocks placed by hand, filling 
the space as completely as possible. When 
the tunnel lining comes along, grout pipes are 
left at these locations, and the grout injected 
under pressure until all the voids are filled. 
Sometimes the concrete is placed before the 
tunnel lining comes along. 

Q. What Mnds of roclc would you consider 
unfit for use in concrete where thoroughly 
sound worTc is required? Describe these fully 
and clearly? 

A. Any rock which was not homogeneous, 
of a compact texture or uniform density would 
be unfit for thoroly sound concrete work. 
Any rock which would disintegrate by weather 
action would be unfit. Crushed rock should 
pass through a 2 inch ring, but not through 
a % inch ring, A rock which increases 5% 
or more in weight after remaining 24 hours 
in water is too porous and should be re- 
jected, 

Q. If asJced to mahe the most compact and 
impermeable concrete possible, how would you 
do it? State this fully and clearly. 

A, The ideal concrete would be one which 
has no voids, in order to approach this con- 
dition as near as possible, experiments would 
have to be made with the crushed stone, sand 
and cement, in order to determine their voids 
separately: then the proportions to be used in 
the concrete may be determined. After a de- 
termination of the proportion to be used by 
pouring water into a pail of the material, 
weighing before and after. The concrete would 
be mixed in the regular manner, using just 
sufficient water to make a plastic mixture. 

Q. What do you understand by the term 
"grout"? Describe fully? (&) Under what 
conditions is it used in the aqueduct worTc and 
how? 

A, (a) A thin or liquid mortar of lime or 
cement used under pressure for filling by in- 
jection cavaties in masonry work, (b) It is 
used on aqueduct construction to fill the voids 
in the dry packing, placed between the roof 
of the tunnel and the concrete lining, and 
also to fill the seams by an injection under 
pressure. 



30 



Q. (a) Where new concrete is to be joined 
to old or set, what method has been found to 
insure the most perfect junction between the 
two? (&) In addition to (a) describe the 
requirements to obtain freedom from air bub- 
bles in the concrete, after placing, and to give 
it a smooth surface? 

A. (a) Chip the old concrete and put a 
neat cement over it, then put the new concrete 
on; of course, the old concrete should be first 
thoroly cleaned and brushed. (b) The 
concrete should be well tamped and spaded, 
that is, a concrete spade should be worked 
into the mass so that all air bubbles arise, this 
also insures the larger stones being in the cen- 
ter of the concrete, giving the face a smooth 
surface. 

Q. Describe a good quality of rubble mason- 
ry in mortar? 

A. Eubble masonry should consist of coursed 
rubble of good quality, laid in cement mortar. 
No stone should be less than 6 inches in thick- 
ness. No stone should measure less than 12 
inches in its least horizontal dimension or less 
than its thickness. At least one-fourth of 
the stone in the face should be headers, evenly 
distributed throughout the wall. The stones 
should be roughly squared on joints beds, and 
faces laid so as to break the joints and in full 
mortar beds. All vertical spaces should be 
flushed with good cement mortar and then 
packed with spalls. Selected stones should be 
used at all angles and should be thoroly 
and neatly pitched to true line and laid on 
hammer-dressed beds. 

Q. Where steel is used in reinforcing con- 
crete, state all the requirements for the best 
worlc? 

A. Concrete should be placed within 30 
minutes after mixing in 9 inch layers, temper- 
ing forbidden, dumping from heights exceed- 
ing 6 feet should not be allowed. Care should 
be taken not to disturb the position of the bars, 
the concrete should be well spaded and worked 
around the bars in such manner as to avoid 
formation of pockets or voids. Where imprac- 
ticable to entirely complete one layer before 
commencing a second one, a 9 inch wide plank 
should be placed or fastened vertically against 
which the end of the layer of concrete should 
be rammed. Before embedding the steel it 
should be thoroughly cleaned of grease, scale, 
rust, etc., all bars should be placed true to line 
and in exact place as shown on plan. When 
two or more bars cross each other in contact, 
they should be securely wired to each other at 
all such intersections. 

Q. What is the test method of cleaning out 
stone, rocTc and masonry in masonry construc- 
tion ? 

A. Washing and scrubbing with muriatic 
acid and water. Wire brushes are used for 



marble and sandstone; stiff bristle brushes 
are ordinarily used. Scrubbing should con- 
tinue until all mortar stains and dirt are en- 
tirely removed. The sandblast operated by 
steam or compressed air is used for cleaning 
old stonework. A strong stream of water with 
wire or stiff bristle brushes is also very ef- 
fective. 

Q. What laws govern the use of explosives? 
State in brief the important points which an 
Inspector should watch. 

A. The laws governing the use of explosives 
in New York City are promulgated by the 
Municipal Explosive Commission. Some of 
them are: 

1. No person or employee shall handle dy- 
namite or explosives or do any blasting except 
a blaster, who shall be licensed by the Chief 
of the Bureau of Combustiles. 

2. No person after blasting shall be allowed 
where such blast has been fired ( except the 
blaster), until the blaster has made a personal 
examination and has found all safe. 

3. Only a wooden tamping stcik, one-half 
inch smaller in diameter than the hole, shall 
be used; no iron or steel shall be used therein. 

4. When a shot misses fire, no one shall re- 
turn to that part in less than three hours, un- 
less blaster after a personal examination, pro- 
nounces all safe. 

5. Every exploder should be tested by means 
of an exploder testing machine, and if it does 
not register O. K., exploder should not be 
used. 

6. For thawing, a double jacket thawing 
apparatus should be used. 

7. Dynamite, exploders and caps should be 
kept under lock and key in separate maga- 
zines. Only a day's supply should be kept on 
hand. 

There are many more laws, but the above 
give a general idea of them. Outside of the 
City, the State law, which is very similar to 
rules of the Municipal Explosives Commission, 
must be observed. 

Q. Define the following terms, (a) E flu- 
ent, (b) Invert, (c) Intradas, (d) Laitance. 

A. (a) A place for the overflow of water. 
Effluent chambers are provided on aqueducts 
for draining, whenever necessary. 

(b) An "Invert" is a flat, inverted arch 
used for the floor of a tunnel, or in aqueduct 
"cut and cover" construction. 

(c) The "Intradas" is the inside or lower 
line of an arch. 

(d) "Laitance" is the scum which appears 



31 



on the top of concrete, after it is put in place. 
This should be scraped oif so that the surface 
is clean and wet when more concrete is added. 

Q. Assume various hatches of concrete mixed 
as specified except as follows: 

(a) Gravel instead of stone? 
(h) Too much water? 

(c) Too little water? 

(d) 5% of loam in the sand? 

(e) S0% less cement? 

State briefly the probable result in each case. 

A. (a) Assuming that the gravel and the 
crushed stone were of the same strength, the 
resulting concrete would not be as strong, 
since the sharp, broken stone would make a bet- 
ter bond than the gravel. 

(b) Too much water usually results in the 
cement washing away through the cracks in 
the form work. If the forms are absolutely 
water tight, a thin mixture of sand and ce- 
ment remains on the top of the concrete. The 
result is a weaker concrete than required. 

(c) Too little water usually results in a 
poor mixture of concrete, which can be detected 
when the forms are removed by the "swiss- 
cheese" effect. With careful spading and 
tamping, this may be overcome, but it means 
additional work which would not be necessary 
were enough water used. 

(d) Specifications usually state that not 
more than 3% loam or vegetabler matter should 
be allowed. Five per cent of loam would 
mean that a weaker concrete would result, 
since the loam has not the strength of sand 
nor will it adhere to the cement. 

(e) Twenty per cent less cement would re- 
sult in a ''thin" concrete with much less 
strength than specified. If the specified mix- 
ture were a weak one, it would mean a porous 
concrete as a result of insufficient cement. Ten- 
sile and compressive tests would show this up 
well. 

Q. In tunnel worJc, what is "over brealc- 
age;" what causes it, why is it objectionaljle 
and how is it remedied? 

A. ' * Over breakage ' ' is the excavation made 
outside the required or specified lines. It is 
caused by too heavy dynamite charges, bad 
alignment of drill holes, or by the nature of 
the rock which may have seams, faults, fis- 
sures, etc., to cause it. 

The contractor is only paid to a specified 
line; anything outside this line is at his own 
expense. Not only is the expense additional, 
but the space must be filled up with concrete, 
which he is also not paid for. The resulting 
job is not as strong as in the original plans. 
This "over breakage" may be remedied by 
taking care of the points outlined above which 
cause it. It cannot entirely be done away with, 
sufficient care, however may reduce it to .a 
minimum. 



Q. What quality and sizes of stones make 
the densest concrete? 

A. Hard, durable, insoluable stone broken 
to suitable size, or clean, sound, insoluable 
gravel. Shaly or "reeding" stone which 
breaks into slabs or plates, or stone or gravel, 
which is all of one size, should not be used. 
It should not contain dust, loam, clay or per- 
ishable matter and should be washed, screened, 
or both if necessary, to remove such substances. 
Generally it should be of such sizes that all 
of it can be passed through a 2 inch ring and 
be retained on a % inch mesh screen. The 
stone should be well graded so that the voids 
shall be a minimum and easily filled with the 
cement and sand. 

Q. Under what conditions should concrete 
be rammed or spaded, or both; how and why 
is spading done? 

A. Concrete should be rammed or spaded, 
or both, in order to get a dense, impervious 
mixture. When thin walls are constructed or 
in reinforced concrete work, ramming is almost 
impossible, and spading is more effective in 
reaching all points between the steel rods, in 
expelling the air and enabling stones to be kept 
away from the face next to the forms. On a 
large mass of work laid in 6 inch layers or 
less, as in the construction of the foundation 
for an asphalt or Belgian block street, ram- 
ming is sufficient and spading is unnecessary. 
On walls of 10 inch thickness or more, the 
spade should be used to expel all entrained air 
and to keep large stones away from the form 
work. The concrete should then be rammed 
to compact it as much as possible. A dry 
mixture will require more ramming and spad- 
ing than a wet mixture, since the concrete 
does not flow so readily when dry. 

Q. (a) Hoiv would you determine in the 
field whether steel rods for reinforcing con- 
crete are of reliable quality? (b) What is the 
objection to rust on such rods? (c) How is 
it prevented on rods partly set in concrete and 
exposed for some time? 

A. (a) Steel rods should be tested before 
they leave the shops, and the Inspector usually 
receives word that this has been done and that 
shipments are O. K. As an additional check 
in the field, he should note whether the rods 
are of the proper size, length, and that the 
twisting is properly done, no evidences of 
cracks being visible. After twisting, the steel 
should stand bending cold, without cracking, 
180% to a diameter equal to twice the nominal 
size of the rod. 

(b) When rust is present it forms a film 
around the steel which may scale off at any 
time. It keeps the concrete from adhering to 
the steel, and consequently the steel and the 
concrete cannot act as one mass. The steel 
may slip and so become entirely independent 
of the concrete. When the steel is not rusted 



32 



the concrete adheres to it, the concrete being 
reinforced by the steel in tension, just as the 
designers intended. 

Q. What effect has grinding on cement? 

A. Grinding the cement fine gives it a bet- 
ter opportunity to fill the voids in the sand, 
increases its weight per barrel and allows it 
to be more thoroly acted on by water. 

Q. (a) What is hydraulic cement and 
how many Tcinds do you Tcnow of? (&) What 
is the essential difference in their manufacture? 

A. (a) Hydraulic cement is cement which 
has the property of hardening both in the air 
and under water. The kinds mostly used are 
Portland cement, natural cement and Puzzo- 
lana. 

(b) Portland cement is made from burning 
artificial mixtures of lime carbonates and alum- 
inum silicates. The material is finely ground 
before being burned and is then reduced to a 
powder. Natural cement is made by burning 
in lumps limestones containing clay in such 
proportions as to make cement. The burned 
product is then ground to an impalpable pow- 
der. Puzzolana is prepared by powdering a 
volcanic rock and does not require burning. 

Q. What is meant hy the term "setting" 
as applied to cement? 

A. When cement is subjected to the action 
of water a chemical change takes place among 
the atoms of cement which causes it to harden. 
This is called ''setting." 

Q. What Jcind of sand should he used in mor- 
tar and how do you test its quality? 

A. Sand should be fine, sharp, clean and 
free from earth and clay. It should be tested 
for fineness by passing it through sieves and 
computing the percentages retained. 

Sharpness can be tested by rubbing between 
the fingers and examining with a microscope. 
Cleanliness is tested by rubbing between the 
fingers and noting the result. Impurities are 
detected by the use of chemicals. Some speci- 
fications allow 3% of vegetable matter. 

Q. Does the quality of cement, particularly 
Portland cement, for hydraulic work depend 
in any way upon its storage? (a) If so, state 
how it is affected by storage. (&) State what 
might he the after effect upon a structure for 
lack of care in this respect. 

A. (a) Cement is improved by storage. 
Fresh cement often contains free lime and 
will "swell" or "blow" unless the lime is 
removed by exposure to the air. 

(b) The effect upon the structure may be 
to endanger it or destroy it by the swelling 
of the cement when used in the structure. The 



resultant concrete is, of course, weaker than if 
no "free lime" were present. 

Q. What defects should an Inspector look 
for in opening a harrel of cement? 

A. He should see if any moisture has got- 
ten into the barrel and has caused any of the 
cement to set. This would be evidenced by 
lumps, or one end may be set where it was in 
contact Avith water or moisture. 

Q. (a) What are the ohjections to temper- 
ing concrete? (h) Why are masses of concrete 
left wet for several days? (c) Why do you 
mix hroken stone and grovel wet? (d) When 
is concrete cheaper than hrick? (e) Why do 
you not use the shovel in laying concrete? 

A. (a) Tempering is the application of 
water to concrete partially set. It is detri- 
mental, since a mass which is not homogeneous 
is the result. 

(b) A good deal of water is absorbed by 
the broken stone in concrete and some of it is 
evaporated. In order to replace this water, 
which is necessary to the proper setting of the 
concrete, the mass must be kept wet for sev- 
eral hours, to prevent shrinkage, cracks, etc. 

(e) Broken stone and gravel absorb water 
from the concrete which is necessary for set- 
ting. They are wetted to counteract this, so 
that the mortar will have sufficient water to ad- 
here to the stone properly. 

(d) Concrete is cheaper than brick when 
it is used in extensive work and when the forms 
are simple and can be used over and over 
again, in short where the form work is cheap, 
concrete is cheaper than brick. 

(e) If a shovel is used the mortar may 
stick to it and be separated from the rest 
of the aggregate resulting in an incorrect mix- 
ture. 

Q. What power should he used for machin- 
ery and tools in tunnels, and why? 

A. Electricity and compressed air should 
be used; electricity for lighting, running 
motors, blowers, pumps, etc., and compressed 
air for the drills. Of late electricity has been 
used on drills, but a great deal of difficulty 
has been experienced due to short circuits, 
bad connections, etc., due to water. Ventila- 
tion is a prime requisite in driving a tunnel, 
and that is the reason that compressed air and 
electricity should be used. With steam and 
oil torches it may be done, but the efficiency 
of the laborers is cut more than one-half. 

Q. Describe clearly the kind of masonry 
which, in your opinion, will make the most 
water tight dam and state why you think so. 

A. The upper and lower faces of the dam 
should be built of Ashlar laid in close joints; 



33 



the dam should be built on a well-prepared 
rock foundation, the inside or backing may be 
of rubble or concrete. This construction will 
give the biggest percentage of rock with very 
close and well made joints. This tends to in- 
sure a water-tight structure. On the Ashokan 
Dam (modern practice), concrete facing blocks 
with an interior of Cyclopean masonry is the 
adapted form of construction. 

liAWS AND ORDINANCES. 

Q. When are marquises or awnings per- 
mitted? 

A, Marquises, or awnings, supported wholly 
from the building, will be permitted where they 
do not extend more than 2^ feet on either 
side of the entrance, provided they are con- 
structed of iron and glass or other incom- 
"bustible material and are properly drained. 

Q. What grades should sidewalJcs have from 
house line to curh? 

A. They shall be raised from the curbstone 
2 inches every 10 feet. 

Q. What permits may he obtained from the 
Tresident of the Borough? 

A. For sidewalk alterations, incumbrance, 
bay and show windows beyond the building 
line, ornamental projections, awnings, mar- 
quises, moving buildings, building operations, 
pavement openings, sewer connections, news- 
stands being subway kiosks (approval), etc. 

Q. What ordinance effects the paving of 
private cartways, crossing and City sidewalh? 

A. They should be paved with granite or 
bluestone, no less in size than 8 square feet, 
laid loosely together; brick or paving stones 
are prohibited. (This is old ordinance not in- 
sisted upon now.) 

Q. What must the dimensions of curdstone 
le? 

A. Not less than 3 feet in length, 5 inches 
thick and 20 inches wide throughout; shall 
be of the best bluestone or gray granite, 10 
inches shall be laid below the kennel, and the 
ends from top to bottom should be truly 
squared. 

Q. How may an owner redeem property 
which has ieen seized for an incumbrance? 

A. He pays to the Borough President, for 
the use of the City, the necessary removal ex- 
pense together with 6 cents per day for every 
cart load during the time it remains unclaimed. 

Q. What becomes of an article not re- 
deemed? 

A. On the first and tenth days of February, 
JMay, August and November, the Comptroller 
advertises and sells at public auction all articles 
not claimed. 



Q. On what streets has the Borough Presi- 
dent no power to issue permits for the erection 
of hay windows and show windows projecting 
beyond the building line? 

A. Inside of parks or within a distance of 
350 feet from the outer boundaries of a park, 
in which case the Park Commissioner has juris- 
diction. 

Q. How may stands within stoop lines be 
permitted and licensed? 

A. With the owner's or alderman's con- 
sent. Newspaper stands must pay an annual 
license of $5.00; for fruit stands, soda water, 
or both, $10.00; for newspaper and fruits, 
$15.00; bootblack stands, each chair, $5.00. 

Q. What is the maximum distance which 
signs may be extended from the building line? 

A. Six feet, and must give a clearance of 
10 feet above the sidewalk. 

Q. Row are pedestrians protected when a 
building is being erected? 

A. A shed over the sidewalk from the build- 
ing line to curb must be erected and main- 
tained for their protection, a permit for which 
may be obtained upon payment of $5.00 to the 
Borough President for the first 25 feet and 
$1.00 for each additional 25 feet. 

Q. What regulations govern the placing of 
Icettles for heating of materials and lighting 
fires under the same, on street? 

A. The pavement shall be protected with 
earth to a depth of at least 15 inches on stone 
pavement. The permittee must place a bond 
or a deposit for pavement which may be in- 
jured. 

Q. State the regulations governing the plac- 
ing of building materials in streets. 

A. Eegulations governing the placing of 
building material on streets are: 

1. The portion of street to be occupied 
shall not exceed 1-3 the width of the carriage- 
way outside the curbstone, the materials to be 
placed near the curbstone and directly in front 
of premises. 

2. The piling of brick or stone in the street 
is prohibited, and no material shall be placed 
on unpaved cuts. 

3. The sidewalk in front of said premises 
shall be kept at all times free and clear for 
pedestrians, and suitable provisions maintained 
when the same is removed for alteration and 
other purposes. 

4. The material shall occupy a space of uni- 
form width and shall not be placed within 
2 feet of any railroad track or within 4 feet 
of any City lamp post, or 10 feet of any fire 
hydrant. The carriageway of all streets shall 



34 



be covered with planking before such materia\ 
is placed thereon, which planking and material 
shall be limited to the space included in this 
permit, and shall not interfere with the frea 
flowage of water in the gutter-ways, and no 
material or incumbrance shall be placed oi 
the highway outside the limits of said plank- 
ing. 

5. In all cases suffiicient and suitable lights 
are to be placed on such building material at 
twilight in the evening, and the same are to 
be kept burning every night until such ma- 
terials are removed from the street. 

6. Pences must be erected to guard excava- 
tions and to prevent pedestrians from falling 
into the excavations. 

7. Asphalt pavements must be properly cov- 
ered with planking to protect the same from 
damage before any building materials are 
placed thereon. Persons holding this permit 
will be held liable for any damage sustained 
to these pavements through neglect to comply 
with this condition. 

8. Any violation of the ordinance relating 
to the barriers, erection of fences, placing of 
sufficient lights to prevent accidents, or failure 
to comply with the above conditions or either 
of them, will be sufficient cause for revocation 
of permit, and the commencement of proceed- 
ings to recover penalties for the violation of 
the same. 

9. In case of any street opening, or re- 
pairing or laying of water pipes, gas pipes, 
subways or other improvements or alterations 
this permit is hereby revoked, and aU material 
must be removed without further notice. 

The holder of this permit shall not disturb, 
remove or injure any street pavement, and shall 
remove all rubbish, dirt or surplus material 
therefrom before sundown on each day; and 
the holder of this permit shall notify the Chief 
Engineer of Highways on or before the expira- 
tion of the permit, of the time when the work 
to which the permit applies is completed, and 
no further permit will be issued to any person 
who shall fail to comply with these conditions. 

Q. When may sewer culverts le cleaned? 
A. At night, not in the day time. 

Q. May an owner construct a private sewer 
or drain to connect with the City's system? 

A. Yes, at the owner's expense, with the 
Borough President's permission. The owner 
must give a written consent to abide by all 
City Ordinances. 

Q. How may a sewer connection &e made? 

A. No connection shall be made with any 
sewer or drain without the written permission 
of the Borough President, and any connection 

35 



or opening made into any sewer or drain with- 
out such permission or in a manner different 
from the mode prescribed for such opening, 
shall subject the person making the same and 
the owner of the premises directing it, re- 
spectively, to a penalty of $50. In Manhattan 
a charge of $10.00 is made for each connection. 

Q. Who should maJce sewer connections and 
how should they be made? 

A. All openings into any sewer or drain, 
for the purpose of making connections there- 
with, from any house, cellar, vault, yard or 
premises, shall be made by the persons licensed 
by the Borough President, in writing, to per- 
form such work, and the said persons before 
being licensed, shall execute a bond to the 
City for the sum of $1,000 with one or more 
securities; conditioned that they will care- 
fully make the openings or drains into any 
sewers in the manner prescribed without in- 
juring them, and leave no obstructions to sew- 
ers or drains around the connection made by 
them and make no opening into the arch or 
drain, that they will carefully comply with the 
ordinances relating to opening and excavat- 
ing streets, be responsible for an injury or 
damage that may occur to persons, animals or 
property by reason of any opening into the 
street, lane or avenue made by him or those 
in his employment, and that they will properly 
refill and ram the earth, and suitably restore 
the pavement taken up for excavating and re- 
pave the same should it become out of order 
or settle within six months thereafter, and in 
case any person so licensed shall neglect to 
repair the pavement aforesaid within 24 hours 
after being notified, the Borough President, in 
whose territory the same is located, may cause 
the same to be done and charge the expense 
thereof to the persons so neglecting. 

Q. What fees mv^t be paid for sewer con- 
nections? 

A. Ten dollars shall be paid to the Bor- 
ough President, granting the permit for per- 
mission to connect each house, store or build- 
ing with any sewer or drain. Manufactories, 
breweries, distilleries and the like, for permis- 
sion to connect with sewers or drains, for the 
purpose of carrying off water or fluids that 
will not deposit sediment, shall pay such sums 
as shall be fixed and determined hj the Bor- 
ough President. And any manufacturer, 
brewer, distiller, or the like permitting any 
substance to flow into any sewer, drain or re- 
ceiving basin, which shall form a deposit that 
tends to fill said sewers, drain or basin, shall 
be subject to a penalty of $50 for each offense. 
The fee charged is $10.00 for each connection) 
An additional charge for restoring pavement 
is also made. 

Q. State the ordinances regulating sewer 
connections for carrying off animal refuses. 



A. All connections with sewer or drains, 
used for the purpose of carrying off animal 
refuse, from water-closets, or otherwise, and 
slops of kitchens, shall have fixtures for a suf- 
ficiency of Croton water to be applied as to 
properly carry off matters, under the penalty 
of $5.00 for each day the same is permitted 
to remain without such fixtures for supplying 
such water. 

Q. Is a sewer connection for the convey- 
ance or discharge of steam or hot water per- 
missible? 

A. No connection with or opening into any 
sewer or drain shall be used for the convey- 
ance or discharge into said sewer or drain of 
steam or hot water above one hundred degrees 
Fahrenheit, from any boiler or engine or from 
any manufactory or building in which steam 
is either used or generated or to discharge 
or permit to escape into any sewer or drain, 
or into any public street, steam from any stop 
cock, valve or other opening in any steam pipe 
or main, under the penalty of $50 for each and 
every day during any part of which such con- 
nection or opening may have been used for that 
purpose. 

Q. State the ordinance giving the Borough 
President power to permit vaults under side- 
walks. 

A. The Presidents of the respective Bor- 
oughs, on application for that purpose, are 
empowered to give permission to construct any 
vaults or cisterns in the streets within their 
respective territories, provided in the opinion 
of the Borough President granting such per- 
mit, no injury will come to the public thereby. 

Q. What information should an application 
for a vault permit contain? 

A. Every application for permission to erect 
such vau t or cistern shall be in writing, signed 
by the person making the same, and shall state 
the number of square feet of ground which is 
required for the same, and the intended length 
and width of same. 

Q. What does the City charge for a vault 
permit? 

A. Depending on the location, from 30 cents 
a square foot to $2.00 a square foot, and an 
additional charge for pavement disturbed. 

Q. Bow far may a vault extend? 

A. On new construction not further than 
the line of the sidewalk or curbstone under 
the penalty of $100.00. On vaults where the 
streets are being widened, the old space which 
extends beyond the curstone is being per- 
mitted. 

Q. What ordinance regulates the grates of 
vaults? 

A. All grates of vaults shall be made of iron, 



the bars shall be of % of an inch wide and 
^2 of an inch thick, and not more than % 
of an inch apart, under penalty of $25, to be 
paid by the owner of the vault or occupant 
of the house to which the same belongs. The 
above is what the ordinance states. Vault 
lights are now permitted, however. 

Q. For the protection of pedestrians, what 
is required at vaults during construction? 

A. During the night a lamp or lantern should 
be kept at some convenient spot, so as to cast 
its light upon the opening. 

Q. How long is allowed for the construc- 
tion of a vault? 

A. Three weeks. A penalty of $5.00 for 
every day thereafter is recoverable from the 
owner or builder. 

Q. What dead and live loads are vaults de- 
signed to withstand? 
A. Sidewalks : 

Live load — 300 lbs. per square foot. 

Dead load — weight of concrete or stone side- 
walks, concrete base of which is to be assumed 
at 13 lbs. per square foot per inch depth; for 
earth, 10 lbs. per square foot per inch depth. 



Live load — 500 lbs. per square foot. 

Dead load — Same as for sidewalk. Design 
should withstand dead and live loads, ma- 
terials not to be stressed beyond stress speci- 
fied in Building Code. 

LINES AND GRADES. 

Q. Assume that you are instructed to re- 
port the grade of a highway in a distance of 
y^ mile. Explain clearly what you woidd do; 
what instructions you should use and how, 
what assistance you would require and in detail 
hoiv would you get it. 

A. On the Board of Water Supply work, 
the Inspector is often called upon to use in- 
struments; this would be one of the cases. 
He would require a dumpy level, Philadelphia 
rod, and one or two rod-men. One rod-man 
would be sufiicient but two would facilitate 
the work. The work would consist of measur- 
ing the % mile by tape or stadia and then 
getting the difference in elevation between these 
points by the rod and level. In measuring 
the distance the Inspector could be at one end 
of the tape, his assistant at the other; the 
principal points to keep in mind are to keep 
the tape on line and held horizontally. He 
then proceeds with the leveling. Starting from 
bench mark, he takes sights from 150 to 300 
feet long, making backsights and foresights 
as nearly equal as possible. (This is to elim- 



56 



inate instrumental errors, also curvature and 
refraction.) Backsights are added to the ele- 
vation upon which they were taken giving the 
H. I., (height of instrument). Foresights are 
subtracted from the H. I., giving the elevation 
of the "Turning Point." The instrument is 
then taken up and a back sight taken on the 
"T. P." and so on, until the elevation of the 
required point is obtained. Supposing the dif- 
ference in elevation was found to be 105.6 
feet, the grade would be 105.6 feet divided by 
the distance, 2,640 feet, equals 4%. 

Q. What is a reference stake? 

A. A reference stake is a stake driven, 
sticking out of the ground, to aid in finding an 
important point which is hidden below ground 
for the purpose of better preservation. Two 
or more stakes are usually employed and the 
distance to the point referenced is marked on 
each in a direction facing the point. 

Q. Are stakes ever placed between stations 
on a survey line? 

A. Yes. Stakes should be placed between 
stations where there is a decided change in 
grade or where there is an angle in the line, 
i. e., where the line changes direction, also at 
the beginning and end of a curve, and at the 
end of the line. 

Q. In grading a road, liow many lines of 
stakes are set and where are they set? 

A. Five lines of stakes are set. Stakes are 
set on the center line about every 50 feet, 
(every 25 feet in curves), as well as at the 
points of change of grade. A line of stakes 
is also set at the edge of the road in each side 
to mark the width of the road and for the 
purpose of marking the amount of cut and fill 
at those points. A line of stakes is also set 
on each side of the road at the foot of slopes 
on embankments and at the beginning of cuts 
in cuts. They are marked S. S. (slope stakes), 
and side stakes are placed opposite each center 
stake. 

Q. If you had a triangulation point which 
you wished to use frequently in a meadow or 
in high grass, what would you do to facilitate 
finding the same? 

A. I would drive 2 or preferably 3 finder 
stakes around the hub and would mark on 
then, on the side facing the hub, the distance 
to it. I would also plant a pole having a piece 
of white cloth attached near its top so that the 
point could be easily found. 

Q. How would you set a stake in marshy 
or swampy ground if you wished to preserve 
it is a permanent point? 

A. I would use a stake which is bigger in 
cross-section and longer that those in ordinary 
ground, say 3 feet long. In case the ground 
is too soft to hold the stake firmly, I would 



try and compact the earth at the spot, by dump- 
ing stones or earth around it or I would drive 
other stakes around the big stake to wedge it 
and hold it tight. 

Q. In transit work for running the center 
lines of a street, how far apart are stakes usu- 
ally driven and what marks are placed on them? 

A. Stakes are placed 100 feet apart and 
generally at the points of intersections with 
the center and side lines of intersecting streets. 
On curves the stakes are placed closer to- 
gether. 

Q. In doing street grading where slopes 
have to he provided for, state the position of 
all stakes that would he set at a cross section 
and also what marks will he placed on them. 

A. See previous answer. 

Q. Sow would stalces he set in a job of 
sewer work? 

A. On sewer work stakes should be set at 
every 20 to 50 feet to the grade of the sewer, 
along the center line of the sewer and ref- 
erence stakes should be set opposite each center 
stake and about 2 feet outside of the sewer 
trench, to be used to locate the center of the 
sewer when the trench is dug. These stakes 
should be referenced to the nearest curb or 
where there is no curb to other permanent ob- 
jects. 

Q. Where are reference points generally 
placed and hoiv are they fixed? 

A. Such points as are most likely to re- 
main permanent are usually used for reference 
points, i. e., large trees, telegraph and lamp 
posts, fire hydrants, monuments, corners, and 
projections of buildings. The distances to the 
point referenced are marked on the reference 
points. A record and description of these points 
is kept by the surveyor in his note book. 

Q. Raving given two reference points, how 
would you locate the point referenced if it can 
not he seen? 

A. From the notes or from the marks on the 
reference points, I would get the distance from 
the point to each of the two references. With 
these distances as radii, I would swing arcs 
from the reference points. "Where these arcs 
intersect, should be the location of the point 
sought. 

Q. What objects would you consider a^ good 
for reference points? 

A. Such objects which are most likely to 
remain permanently and objects which are 
prominent. (See previous question.) 

Q. What would you do if you were far 
from the office, and you ran short of stakes? 

A. I would look for some suitable wood 
to cut stakes from, or would cut off branches 



37 



from suitable trees in the neighborhood and 
cut stakes from them. 

Q. (a) Describe fully tJie worTc of setting 
a transit stake on a center line. (&) How 
are such stakes marked? 

A. (a) The rear chainman holds the rear 
of the chain or tape on the last transit point 
station. The front chainman stretching the 
tape holds a plumb-bob at the front end 
and gets line roughly from the instru- 
ment man. The axeman then drives the stake 
at the point. While he drives the stake the 
line and distance is frequently checked to 
make sure that the point will fall on the stake 
when completely driven. The front chainman 
then holds his bob, and gets line from the 
chainman, and marks a point on the top of 
the stake, near the rear edge of it. He then 
lets the instrument man give him a check sight 
to make sure that the point is on line. Sim- 
ilarly he marks a point on the top of stake 
near the front edge of it. With the aid of 
a straight edged card he draws a line joining 
the two points. Every point on this line will 
be on the survey line. The rear chainman then 
plumbs his end of the chain carefully over the 
rear point and the front chainman measures 
the exact distance and marks a point on the 
line. A brass tack is then driven on the exact 
point found. 

(b) Transit points are generally hubs 
driven almost flush with the ground, the sta- 
tions are not therefore marked on them, but 
on guard or finder stakes near them. 

Q. If you Jiad to set an off-set stake at the 
end of a line, how would you do it? 

A. To set an off-set stake at the end of a 
line, the instrument is set up on the stake, set 
at the end of the line, and the telescope is 
sighted to the last stake set. A right angle 
or 90 degrees angle is turned and the off-set 
stake at the required distance from the end 
stake. 

Q. How would you proceed to drive a stake 
in hard or frozen ground. 

A. By means of a bar or standard, make a 
hole in the ground about one-half as deep as 
the length of the stake. This is done to pre- 
vent the stake from splitting or breaking when 
it is driven in ground. 

Q. How many stakes would de required to 
give stations in a transit line half a mile long, 
allowing 7 for plus stations including the last 
stake? 

A. There are 2,640 feet in i^ mile. There 
will therefore be needed 26 station stakes; 7 
plus stakes, and one last or end stake, i. e., 34 
stakes in all. 



Q. (a) How is a transit point accurately 



marked on a stake? (&) How when it falls 
on a rock ledge? 

A. (a) A transit point is accurately 
marked on a stake by a small brass tack, (b) 
By means of a punch hole or cross marked on 
the rock or a hole is drilled in the rock and a 
copper plug leaded or cemented into it. A 
punch hole is marked on plug. 

Q. In what other way teside the use of 
stakes are stations marked on a line? 

A. On stones, curbs, or flagging by cutting 
a cross, square or triangle with a punch hole 
to mark the exact center of point. - On pave- 
ment, such as asphalt, wood-block or macadam, 
a spike or large nail may be used. 

Q. In marking points on stones and flag- 
ging, give all tlie forms you know that are 
tised. 

A. (a) A cross, (b) punch hole with radial 
lines, (c) triangle with punch holes in center, 
(d) square with punch holes in center, (e) 
parallel line with punch hole, (f) crow's-foot, 
(g) the figure 4. 

Q. What is a "T. P?" 

A. In leveling operations a " T. P. " is a 
turning point. It is a iDoint used to hold the 
rod between ' ' set ups ' ' of the instrument, and 
both fore and back sights are read on it. 

In transit work, "T. P." is a transit point 
or a point on which the instrument is set up 
for turning angles or running a line. 

Q. What is a ''P. C." and "P. T.?" 
A. When two intersecting lines or tangents 
on a survey line are joined by a curve, the 
point where the first tangent ends and the 
curve beings is called the ' ' Point of Curve, ' ' 
''P. C. " The other end of the curve or 
where it ends, and the second tangent begins, 
is called, the ''Point of Tangent," *'P. T." 

Q. What is a "C. P.?" 

A. In topographical or other surveying work 
where contours or lines of equal elevations 
have to be established, level readings are taken, 
either with a level of by stadia on points Which 
lie in these contours. These points are called 
''Contour Points," or "C. P.'s" 

Q. What does "B. M." stand for? 

A. A " B. M. " or Bench Mark, is a perma- 
nent point set or established whose elevation 
is accurately determined and is used for start- 
ing a leveling survey and also for checking 
the same. 

Q. What points are used as "B. M.'s?" 
A. Points that are permanent and are not 
apt to be disturbed or whose elevations will 
remain always the same, are used as Bench 
Marks. The objects used usually are spikes 
in roots of large trees, or telegraph poles; 
water table steps and coping on large build- 



38 



ings, masonry, walls of bridges, monuments, 
tops of hydrants, and sewer-basin heads. 

Q. Describe how you would cut a bench 
mark on the root of a tree. 

A. First, select a large root on which the 
rod could be held vertically without interfering 
with the leaves and branches and at the same 
time could be seen by the instrument man. Cut 
a projection on the root so that the rod can 
be freely rotated thereon. Drive a spike into 
the root at the top of the projection. Blaze 
the bark of the tree, and mark upon it, B. M. 
and the elevation. 

Q. What is a " plumb -bob'* and what is it 
used for? 

A. A plumb-bob is a conical metalic weight 
usually of brass with a steel point. It is hung 
by a string attached at its topj When hung 
over a point on the ground, it holds the string 
vertical and directly over the point. It is used 
to set up an instrument, in giving a ''sight," 
and by the rear and front chainman in chaining. 

Q. What conditions must be fulfilled by a 
plumb-bob to insure accurate worTc? 

A. A plumb -bob should be heavy so as to 
be steady in windy weather. It should be ac- 
curately shaped, and sharp, otherwise errors 
will be caused in setting up the instrument and 
in measuring lines. 

Q. Bow is a "plumb-bob*' held steady? 

A. To hold a plumb-bob steady over a 
point, rest on the left knee, hold the plumb- 
bob string in the right hand with the back of 
the hand resting on the right knee over the 
point. Where the bob-string has to be held 
high over the point it is best to use a standard 
or bar having a movable arm. The bar is 
driven into the ground and the hand rests on 
the movable arm holding the string steady 
thereby. 

Q. What is a " Gunter Chain?" 
A. A Gunter or surveyor's chain is a chain 
of 100 links. It is 66 feet long and therefore 
each link is 7.92 inches in length. It can 
be used only where accurate work is not re- 
quired, such as surveying farms or wood lands. 
A tag is attached to every tenth link and is 
marked with the distance from the end. 

Q. What is an "Engineer's Chain?" 

A. An Engineer's Chain differs from a 
Gunters chain only that it is 100 feet long, 
having 100 links each 1 foot in length. 

Q. Describe the spring balance tape or 
chain. 

A. For accurate traverse or city work, when 
land is expensive, the compensating spring 
balance tape or chain is used. It is a thin, 
narrow tape of steel and is generally 50 feet 



long, although one of 100 feet and even 250 
feet are sometimes used. It has small loops 
soldered to it at both ends and at the middle. 
At these points it also has notches attached 
to engage the bob-string of the chainman. Each 
chainman has a handle to which is attached 
a hook to engage the loops on the chain. 

Q. Describe the "Spring Balance" handle 
used by the head chainman in accurate city 
surveying. 

A. It consists of a tube in which rests 
at one end a thermometer for measuring the 
temperatures and at the other a level to show 
when the tape is held horizontal. It has eyes 
at both ends, one for attaching it to the tape, 
and the other for the handle of the head chain- 
man. It also has a movable collar, which may 
be moved back and forth, thereby lengthening 
and shortening it to compensate for its ex- 
pansion or contraction. 

Q. Row is an Engineer's tape graduated? 
A. It is graduated into feet and tenths of 
a foot. 

Q. In measuring a line with a 50 foot 
spring balance tape, if the line contains more 
than an even number of 50 foot lengths, how 
would you measure the additional length at 
the end? 

A. I would use a graduated steel tape. 

Q. Why can't accurate work be done with 
a link chain? 

A. A link chain is apt to be made longer 
than its correct length by pulling or wearing 
away of the links where they touch. It is too 
heavy to entirely overcome the sag in it and 
cannot be read close. 

Q. Name the different rods generally used 

in surveying. 

A. Eanging rods or poles, leveling rods, and 
stadia rods. 

Q. Describe a ranging rod and give its 

use? 

A. A ranging rod is a thin rod of wood or 
iron, usually 6 to 8 feet long. It is generally 
round or octagonal having its surfaces grad- 
uated into foot lengths, each alternate foot 
length is painted a different color. The wooden 
rods are provided with an iron shoe at the 
bottom. Eange rods are used iu transit work 
for giving sights and for ranging in lines. 

Q. Describe the stadia rod and its use? 

A. A stadia rod is a flat rod from 12 to 
18 feet long and 4 inches wide. On its front 
surface it is graduated into feet and tenths 
and to its back is attached a rib of wood which 
helps to keep.it from warping and is used to 
grasp the rod when giving a sight. It is used 
for locating side shots and contour points in 
topographical work and for reading distances 
by means of the stadia telescope. 



39 



Q. Describe a level rod, 

A. A level rod is generally rectangular, 
made of two parts, one sliding over the other. 
It is 6% feet long and can be extended 12 feet. 
It is graduated into feet, tenths, and hun- 
dredths. It is usually provided with a target 
having a vernier attached which enables thou- 
sands of a foot to be read. 

Q. What are the two classes of rods used 
in leveling? 

A. The self-reading rods and the target 
rods. 

Q. What is a self -reading rod? 

A. A self-reading rod is a rod so graduated 
that the instrument man can read the position 
of the cross-hairs on the rod through the in- 
strument obviating the necessity of having the 
rod brought to him for a reading. 

Q. What is a vernier? 

A. A vernier is an auxiliary scale attached 
to the main scale and is used to read fractions 
of the smallest division of the main scale. 



Q. Describe how it is possible to read to 
thousandths of a foot in a rod graduated to 
hundredths by means of a vernier. 

A. A space is laid off on the vernier equal 
to 9-10 of the tenth-foot space in the rod. 
This space in the vernier is divided into 10 
equal parts. Each of these small divisions on 
the vernier is therefore 1-10 smaller than the 
one-hundredths division on the rod. The dif- 
ference between the smallest division on the 
rod and on the vernier is 1-1000 of a foot. To 
read to thousandths, read the feet, tenths, hun- 
dredths, nearest to the zero on the vernier, then 
look along the vernier and note what division 
on the vernier exactly coincides with a 1-lOOth 
division on the rod. Add so many thousands to 
your reading. For example, if the 4 on the 
vernier corresponds with a division on the rod 
then you must add 4-lOOOths to your rod read- 
ing. 

Q. What is a "Philadelphia Rod?" 

A. A Philadelphia Eod is a self -reading rod, 
divided into feet, tenths, hundredths. Thou- 
sands are estimated with the eyes. A target 
is also often used in which case a vernier is 
attached to read thousandths. 



PART V. 
REPORT WRITING, FORMS, RECORDS, ETC. 



In the following pages you will find reports 
as they are actually used on the work. 

Each day the Inspector makes out a certified 
report of the Contractor's force account, giv- 
ing the time they worked and also his own 
time. This is handed in to the Engineer each 
day. 

When an accident occurs the Engineer should 
be notified immediately by telephone or other- 
wise and the special accident report made out 
and forwarded as soon as possible. 

On the examination when you write your re- 
port, have in mind some work with which you 
are acquainted, then foUow one thought after 
another in logical order. Make sketches to 
illustrate your text wherever possible. 

The form of the address should be: 

June 30th, 1911, 

High Falls, N. Y. 
Mr. John Smith, 
Section Engineer, 
High Falls, N. Y., 

Dear Sir, 

I respectfully submit herewith progress re- 
port from Station 210 to Station 260 for the 
month ending June 30th, 1911, etc. 

Write concisely. Deal with one subject only 
in each letter. Do not write unnecessary let- 
ters. 

Letters or other communications should be 
written to record important transactions within 
the Engineering Bureau or between members 
of this Bureau and outside persons. 

Eeports should state in an orderly way the 
work accomplished during the week covered 
by the report, using tabular forms or diagrams 
wherever they can be employed to advantage. 
In many such cases it is desirable to show 
the total work accomplished to date, as well 
as that done during the week. So far as 
practicable, each man's report should follow 
the same order from week to week, so as to 



expedite the compilation of information from 
such reports for the Chief Engineer's weekly 
reports and other purposes. Recommendation 
requests and predictions should be put into 
letters and special reports should be written 
on investigations, accidents, and similar sub- 
jects, although brief references to such special 
reports may be made in a weekly progress re- 
port. 

All tables and appendices, which accompany 
reports, mvist have a note on them. Accom- 
panying report of (date) 

From 

to 

All reports should be concise and clear and 
conveniently arranged; statistical matter 
should be put into tables and diagrams. 

In writing special reports, state clearly the 
pith of the problem, and the results of the in- 
vestigation in one or two brief paragraphs at 
the beginning, then proceed with the detailed 
discussion in an orderly and logical procession. 
Conclude with a ciear recommendation for 
action or a forcible statement of the lesson 
of the investigation. 

REPORT. 

Q. Write a report of not less than two or 
more than four pages consisting of a monthly 
progress report on worJc of one of the follow- 
ing Mnds. (a) The construction of masonry 
dam. (&) The construction of a storage res- 
ervoir with earth dihes and concrete entrance 
and outlet works, (c) The construction of 
aqueduct section in tunnel in rocTc. 

This report is to be in proper form and 
suitably addressed. 



41 



INSPECTOE'S MONTHLY EEPOET. 

Tunnel Woek. 

Yorktown Heights, N. Y., 
Aug. 16, 1911. 

Mr. John Doe, 
Section Engineer. 

Sir, 

I respectfully submit herewith progress re- 
port for the month ending June 30th, 1911, for 
Contract No. 50, (Garrison tunnel). 

During the month the heading of the North 
Portal was excavated from station 165 -f 
10 to station 167 + 50, a distance of 240 
feet ; the bench from section 164 + 90, to 
station 167 + 00, a distance of 210 feet. At 
the South Portal the heading progressed from 
station 205 + 60 to 203 + 00, a distance 
of 260 feet; the bench is just 10 feet behind 
the heading, 260 feet progress having been 
made. 

At the shaft no work was done during the 
month, the intention being to grade both tun- 
nels from the portals. 

At the North Portal, 2 shifts of 1 foreman, 4 
drillers at the heading with 4 helpers and 1 
nipper ; on the bench, 2 drillers with 2 helpers. 
These shifts worked from 8 A. M. to 4 P. M. 
and 8 P. M. to 4 A. M. Three mucking shifts 
were used from 8 A. M. to 4 P. M., 4 P. M. 
to 12 M., and 12 M. to 8 A. M., each consisting 
of one mucking boss with 16 laborers on the 
bench; 6 in the heading; one motorman, one 
brakeman, and two men on the dump. Small 
motor cars did the hauling of muck. 

The rock encountered was solid throughout, 
requiring no timbering; at Station 166 + 00 
to 166 -f 20, a soft strata of rock was en- 
countered, but it caused no trouble. 

At the South Portal the mucking machines 
were installed, doing away with half of the 
number of muckers used before its use. Al- 
though very soft and treacherous rock was 
encountered, the progress was up to that of last 
month's. The same number of shifts and num- 
ber of men as were used in the North Portal, 
with the exception of the muckers. Here only 
6 were required for both heading and bench, 
the bench keeping right up with heading. 

Twenty-four drill holes were placed in the 
heading at each shot. They were 10 feet deep 
and 7 sticks of 60 per cent, dynamite were 
placed and well tamped in each hole. This 
charge proved just about right, the rock being 
shot out in sizes just large enough to be easily 
handled. 

When the soft rock is passed at the South 
Portal, the intention is to use a smaller charge, 



as the mucking machine can deposit large rocks 
directly into the cars. 

The mucking machine, although not work- 
ing under the best condition, has proved a 
decided success. 

At the South Portal the roof of the tunnel 
requires supporting. Bents spaced 5 feet cen- 
ter to center were put in place, these being 
covered with 2 inch lagging. Outside the lag- 
ging it was found necessary in many places 
to dry pack. During this operation it was 
necessary that I be there aU the time, as it 
is difficult to do this packing well, and the men 
are disposed to be impatient, and not do a 
workmanlike job. I found it meant constant 
watching in order to have good work done. 

On the 15th of the month, John T., a driller 
living at Yorktown Heights, and who had been 
working for the contractor for about 8 months, 
had his left leg broken by a fall of rock from 
the roof of the tunnel hitting his leg. He 
was the first man on the heading that par- 
ticular morning. Ordinarily the heading boss 
sounds for loose rock before any of his men 
enter ahead of him. In this case the pre- 
caution was not taken. He was carried to 
the Portal, where the Doctor was in waiting, 
and they proceeded directly to the camp hos- 
pital. This was the only accident during the 
month. 

The total progress the past month has been 
more than average. For the coming month 
the soft rock will have been passed in the South 
Portal and better progress may be anticipated. 

EespectfuUy submitted, 



MASONBY BEPOBT. 



New York, June, 1912. 

Mr. A. Austin, 

Engineer in Charge. 

Dear Sir, 

I respectfully submit report of progress of 
work done for the week ending Saturday, 
.June 10, between Stations 168 -f 00 to 172 
+ 00. 

Concrete. 

Completed the first layer of concrete, 6 inches 
thick and entended on the North side from Sta- 
tion 168 + 50 to 169 -f 50, and on the 
South side from 168 + 50 to 169 -f 70. 
The second 8 inch layer has been completed 
from 168 + 00 to 169 + 75 on the North 
side and on the South side from 168 -j- 00 to 
169 + 70. 



42 



Rubble Masonry. 

The wall on South side between 168 + 50 
and 169 + 60 has been raised 8 feet above 
subgrade; between 168 + 50 and 169 +00 
00, 5 feet above grade, and from 169 plus 
to 169 + 60 wall has been built for a 
height of 3 feet. The wall on the North side 
has been raised for a height of 6 feet between 
168 +00 to 169 + 40. The concrete back- 
ing for above walls is completed to top of 
same, on the South side between 168 + 00 
and on the North side from 168 + 40, to 
168 + 60. 

Brickwork. 

The culvert crossing at 171 + 00 is now 
complete; the arch of same is now complete 
for about % of its length. The manhole for 
entrance to culvert on the North side has been 
carried up to within 2 feet of grade, and the 
manhole on the South side has just been 
started. 

Iron Pipe. 

The 6 inch iron pipe has been laid and con- 
nected to culvert which will act as outlet for 
spring which was encountered at 171 + 25 
and which ordinary methods would not squelch. 
Up to date, this scheme appears to be very 
successful. 

Preparing Foundations. 

From 169 + 70 to 171 + 00 the grub- 
bing has been completed and the same is now 
ready to proceed with the first layer of con- 
crete. 

From 171 + 50 to 172 + 00 where the 
nature of the soil compels the driving of piles 
in order to secure a proper foundation, 6 test 
piles have been driven at intervals of about 

7 feet. 

The piles are of spruce and average about 
30 feet in length, 15 inches at butts and about 

8 inches at smaller end. 

The piles when sawn off to grade are driven 
to the following depths: 

First 22 ft. 8 in. 

Second 19 ft. 6 in. 

Third 23 ft. in. 

Fourth 22 ft. 11 in. 

Fifth 21ft. 2 in. 

Sixth 20 ft. 5 in. 

None of the above piles would give more 
than % of an inch, some less, under 
the last 3 blows of a 2,000 pound hammer 
falling 10 feet. 

As a precaution the brooming on the heads 
of piles No. 2, 4 and 6 were cut off, giving 
a surface for the hammer to strike upon. 



It was these piles that settled % of an inch 
under the last blows of the hammer, proving 
the gain for removing brooming was but ^ 
of an inch. Nos. 1, 4 and 5 having settled 
but V2 of an inch under last blows of the 
hammer; none of the above piles were shod, 
merely pointed. 

Respectfully submitted, 

Note: Do not sign any name to your re- 
port or otherwise you wiU be disqualified. 



INCUMBRANCE REPORT. 

An incumbrance report should contain the 
following information : 

Street No 

(Name of occupant or owner responsible) 

(Number and description of permit held, if 

any) 

Name of complainant 

Address 

Nature of incumbrance 

Details of Report. 

To be used only if information in addition 
to the above should be given] 



All statements on this 

, 191 .... report are correct. 



Inspector , Dist 

Issue notice 

File without notice 

Note: If the occasion warrants it, have a 
photograph taken immediately. 



48 



ACCIDENT BEFOBT. 

An accident reported should cover the fol- 
lowing points so that the information may be 
used in a law suit if necessary. 

Accident Report No 

New York 

Gentlemen : 

I beg to report the following accident which 

occurred on Contract No 

On 191 At P. M. 

The person employed was 

Employed by 

Resided at 

Home address 

Occupation Wages Per day 

Sex Age Married 

The nature and extent of the injuries were. . 



Was the injured person regularly employed 
on the work at which injured? 

Character of work on which injured person 
was employed at time of accident 

Among the witnesses were the following. . . . 

Respectfully submitted, 

Note — ^If the accidents warrants it, have a 
photograph taken as soon thereafter as possi 
ble. 



ii 



PART VI. 
MATHEMATICS. 



There are several formulae that you will have 
to remember for Inspector examinations. Most 
of them are given herewith. 

Average End Area and Prismodial For- 
mula. 

To figure earth excavations, fills, etc., the 
' ' average end area ' ' method is usually em- 
ployed; the ** prismodial formula," however, 
is a more accurate determination and should 
be used on examinations, unless it is specifically 
stated to use the ''average end area" method. 

Average End Area Method. 

Contents equals area of one of the parallel 
sides plus the area of the other parallel side, 
divide this sum by two and multiply by the 
length. 

Example — Find the cubic contents of a cut — 
At station 1 + 00 the cut is 10 feet at the 
center line, slopes 1^?^ to 1, the excavation at 
the base being 10 feet wide; at station 2 + 
00, the cut is 6 feet at the center line, slope 
the same. 

In all arithmetical problems, and in fact, 
wherever possible on any examination, make 
a sketch. 

In sketch let A, B, C, D =A=area one 
end, E, F, G, H = A'= area other end. 

If B D and A C are on a li^ to 1 slope, 
then A B = C D (10) + 2x15 =40, then the 
area of A B C D = A = 40 + 10 h- 2x10 
= 250 square feet = A. E F then = 10 + 8 
= 28 and area E F Q H = Al = 38 -r- 2x6 
= 114 square feet. 

Then contents equals 114 + 250 ~ 2x100 = 
18,200 cubic feet Ans. 

Prismoidal Formula Method. 

By the ''prismoidal formula" we have: 
Contents = L/6 (A + 4M + A') 

Where L equals length. 

A equals area at one end. 
A' equals area at other end. 
M equals area midway. 




Now M equals area of the section half way 
between A and A'; (J K L M) in order to 
get this, get length J K = E F+A B-r-by 
2 = 40 + 28 -^ 2 = 34. 

M equals 10. 

Cut equals 10 + 6 -^- 2 = 8 then M = 34 + 
10 ^ 2 X 8 = 176. 

then contents = 100/6 (250 + 4x176 + 114) 

= 17,800 cubic feet. 

= 659-8/27 cubic yards. 

It will be seen that the two methods differ 
in results. The "prismoidal method" is the 
more accurate and where the computation in- 
volves any great amount of money it should 
be used. On earth work, where prices are about 
25 cents per cubic yard or less, the average 
end area is good enough. 



'45 



Circle Computations. 

The circiimference of a circle equals 3.1416 
times the diameter. 

The area of a circle equals 3.1416 times the 
square of the radius, or.7854 times the diameter 
squared. 

There are 360 degrees in a circle, therefore, 
in order to get the area of a 30 degree sector, 
take 1-12 of the area of the circle; likewise 
with other sectors. 

Trapezoid. 

The area of a trapezoid equals one-half of 
the sum of the parallel sides times the altitude. 

Board Measure. 

Lumber is reckoned by board measure, that 
is, it is regarded as cut into boards one inch 
tMck, the unit of board measure is a square 
foot, one inch thick. If a piece of lumber 1 
inch thick contains a certain number of feet, 
a piece with the same dimensions two inches 
thick contains twice as many board feet; 
three inches thick, three times as many board 
feet, etc. 

Example — How many board feet measure in 
a board 18 feet long, 18 inches wide and 1 
inch thick. 

Answer — Eeduce the width 18 inches to 1-5 
feet by dividing by 12 inches; then multiply by 
18 feet, giving 27 square feet; as the board is 
1 inch thick, the number of feet board measure 
equals the number of square feet times the 
thickness in inches, or 27 times 1 inch equals 
27 feet board measure. 

Rule — The rule is, multiply the length by 
the breadth, getting square feet, and this pro- 
duct multiply by the thickness in inches. Lum- 
ber is sold by the thousand feet board measure. 
Abbreviated so— M'BM. 

Triangle Computation, 

AREA given C SIDES. 

In a triangle with three sides given to find 
the area? Add the three sides together and 
divide the sum by 2. From the half sum sub- 
tract each side separately. Multiply the half 
sum and the three remainders continuously 
together. The square root of the product will 
be the area. 

Example — Let the sides of a triangle be 48, 
37 and 19. 

19 -f 37 -f 48 = 104. 

half of 104 = 52. 

52—48 = 4 

52—37 = 15 

52—19 = 33 

52 X 4 X 15 X 33 = 102960. 



And the square root of 102960 == 320.87 square 
feet. Answer. 



Square 


Root. 


Extract the square root of 1971.14. 




4 4. 3 9 




V 19'71.14'00' 
16 


20 X 4 = 80 
4 


371 


84 


336 


20 X 44 = 880 
3 


3514 


883 


2649 


20 X 443 = 8860 
9 


86500 


8869 


79821 



Divide the number up into periods of two 
places, starting from the decimal point to the 
left and this will give you 19 as the first 
period, 71 as the second ,etc. 

Guess the nearest square root of 19, it is 
4 or 4x4 equals 16, subtract giving a remainder 
3, bring down the next period 3.71, then for a 
trial divisor multiply whatever is in the answer 
by 20, in this case 20x4 equals 80 as a trial 
divisor, which goes into 371 about 4 times, 
add 4 to the trial divisor, place in the answer, 
then multiply 84 by 4 equals 336; subtract, 
bring down the next period, multiply what is 
in the answer by 20 to get trial divisor just 
as before, and so continued. 

Area. 

The area of any triangle equals i^ base 
times the altitude. In a right angled triangle 
the hypothenuse is equal to the square root 
of the sum of the squares of the other two 
sides. 

Hydraulics. 

The pressure on any vertical surface due 
to the weight of the liquid is equal to the 
weight of a prism of that liquid, whose base 
has the same area as the vertical surface and 
whose altitude is the depth of the center of 
gravity of the vertical surface below the level 
of the liquid. 

Example — What is the pressure per square 
inch corresponding to a head of water 176 
feet? 



40 



The pressure of water equals 62.5 lbs. per 
square foot for every foot head, or .434 lbs. 
per square inch for every foot head. 175 
times .434 equals 75.95 lbs. per square inch. 
Answer. 

Specific Gravity. 

Specific Gravity of a body is the ratio be- 
tween its weight and a like volume of distilled 
water of the temperature of 39 degrees Fahren- 
heit. One cubic foot of water at this tem- 
perature weighs 62.425 pounds. 



Flow of Water. 

When water flows in a pipe, conduit or 
channel, the velocity is not the same at all 
points of the cross-section. 

The mean velocity multiplied by the area 
of the cross-section will equal the total quan- 
tity discharged, or 

Q = A V 

When Q = quantity passing any section in on 
second in cubic feet. 

A = area of section in square feet. 
V = mean velocity in feet per second. 



47 



PART VII. 
SPECIFICATIONS AND HOW TO INTERPRET THEM. 



Specifications are the rules laid down upon 
which a contractor bids and which he should 
comply wiht. 

It is the Inspector's duty to interpret these 
specifications and see that they are lived up 
to. 

As the construction progresses many flaws 
will be found in them or the contractor will 
use different methods of construction than those 
specified, due to unforseen conditions. 

It is in the interpretation of the specification 
that the Inspector requires the most tact, prac- 
tical common sense and good judgment. With- 
out these qualities he will constantly find him- 
self at swords point with the foreman and the 
contractor. On the other hand he will get ex- 



cellent results if he wiU be reasonable, remem- 
bering that "results" is what he is there for. 
If work is done according to specifications or 
by some other method producing as good re- 
sults, he should be satisfied. A close adherence 
to specifications is desired, but not so close 
that it will entail an additional expense on 
the contractor with no better result than by 
the cheaper method. 

There will also be many occasions where the 
contractor will be called upon to do things 
for which he will receive no compensation. 

Many contractors have failed in their work, 
due to holding the work too close to specifica- 
tions. The tendency should be to be reason- 
able with the contractor, keeping in mind 
"a good finished job." 



DIGEST OF SPECIFICATIONS 

CURBSTONE SPECIFICATIONS. 



New curbstone shall be free from seams 
and other imperfections and equal in 
quality to the best North Eiver bluestone, 
Medina sandstone or granite. 

They shall be 16" in depth and not 
less than 3' 6" in length, and not less 
than 5" in thickness, except on redressed 
stone. 

The curb shall be set on 1-3-6 concrete, 
as shown in sketch; shall be set true to 
line and grade on a face batter of IW 
in its depth. 




48 



.4« 

SG^EIBEB PBESS. 



0^ c""- o 














>-' . 



\*^ '7'. * V^^-Pf^' \T * *^ O 

° .%* ... 



/.. 



^ » ' 



^ 
















p ,0 c° " " - O 






"t-0^ 













0^ 






y? 



^^ 









<" 

















-oV^ 



JAN 75 v^* .•?», V ^0^ .vv:'. -> °"° 

^^^^^^^ - ■'-'1 '-- vP y~> ' — f'i' ' — ■■- •J* \ 















I w c 



'^o 



